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�������>>�)�)�)�)�)�����*�*�*�%,1-4�*~�e-e-e-e-e-�.�.�.}}}}}}}$���Z�V9}��)�.�.�.�.�.9}�)�)e-e-h�}A1A1A1�.R�)e-�)e-}A1�.}A1A1J{c��he-�������d��*#/^;fB�|�}0~}f���/�����h�h���)�hX�.�.A1�.�.�.�.�.9}9}A1�.�.�.~�.�.�.�.�����������������������������������������������������������������������.�.�.�.�.�.�.�.�.>	G(:	2348-9502.7.5.20
Article type: Research Article
Received on: March 15, 2020
Accepted on: March 22, 2020
Published on: March 28, 2020
Journal short name: IPJFNPH
Volume: 07
Issue: 05
Pdf No: 2577-0586-04-17
Systematic Review on Spices and Herbs Used in Food Industry
            Tigist Leykun Senay1*
1Department of Food Science and Postharvest Technology, Arsi University, Assela, Ethiopia
                  *Corresponding author:   Tigist Leykun Senay Department of Food Science and Postharvest Technology, Arsi University, Assela, Ethiopia Tel: 0936894462 E-mail:�tigistleykun@yahoo.com 
	

Abstract	
     The narration of herbs and spices is as long as the narration of human beings. People have used these plants since ancient times. Edible spices and herbs serve many advantages in food products. Their primary advantages are to enhance �avor, aroma, texture, and color of food. Spices and herbs also provide secondary effects, such as preservative, nutritional, and health functions.  Use of spices, their extracts or active components in different forms for controlling microbial growth or their toxin metabolites in food constitutes is an unconventional approach to chemical additives. The naturally occurring phenolic compounds (phenolic diterpenes, diphenolic diterpenes) in spices are effective against oxidative rancidity of fats and antimicrobial property. Phenolic compounds are the primary antioxidants present in spices and there is a linear relationship between the total phenolic content and the antioxidant properties of spices.

Keywords:  Spices; Antioxidant; Antifungal; Sensory effect; Antibacterial

 


INTRODUCTION
Spices	are common food condiments, which have been used as flavoring, seasoning, and coloring agents and as preservatives all over the world since earliest times, particularly in India, China, and many other southeastern Asian countries [1]. Spices can be derived from bark, buds, flowers, fruits, leaves, rhizomes, roots, seeds, stigmas and stem or the intact plant tops of plant.  Herb is used as a subset of spice and refers to dried leaves of aromatic plants [2] .Prevention of foods from microbial, chemical and physical deteriorations have been a vital concern in the food industry. In modern years, consumers are challenging for partial or complete substitution of chemical / synthetic preservatives due to their possible bad health effects (Roller, 1995). This reality has guide to an increasing awareness in developing more natural or friendly label on processed foods. Many spices have been considered to have remedial properties and give many valuable effects on health, such as antioxidant activity, digestive stimulant action, anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, antimutagenic, anticarcinogenic potential [1].
amongst the spices largely used for flavoring foods and at the same time have their antimicrobial potential are garlic, onion, nutmeg, mustard, black-pepper, thyme, oregano, rosemary, mint,  basil, paprika, cassia, celery, ginger, coriander, cinnamon and cumin [3]; [4].
Spices, like vegetables, fruits, and remedial herbs, are also known to possess a variety of antioxidant effects and properties [1]. Phenolic compounds in spices and herbs are strongly associated with their antioxidant activity. The antioxidant effect of phenolic compounds is principally due to their redox properties and is the effects of various feasible mechanisms: free radical scavenging activity, conversion metal chelating activity, and/or singlet oxygen quenching capacity [1].Spices is natural food condiments that have been use since ancient times to enhance the sensory quality of foods. Spices and herbs impart characteristic flavour, aroma, taste and colour to foods. Some spices, like fenugreek and ginger, can also modify the texture of food [5].  

Sensory effects of Spices and herbs
Food  condiments are  strong  smelling, sharp  tasting  plants  frequently  used  to  improve  aroma,  texture, and color.  Common examples include mustard, nutmeg, ginger, garlic, coriander, locust bean [6].
Sensory effects of spices and herbs have been noted on appearance, color, odor, taste, texture and overall like. [7] Studied the quality of bread with added turmeric powder, turmeric essential oil and turmeric extracted residue at 0.10% and observed that the texture, appearance, taste and overall acceptability of bread containing turmeric residue had higher liking scores.
[8] Assayed the effects of Aframomum danielli and Zingiber offcinale crude extract on the sensory quality of fried bean cake snacks. The result indicated that fried bean cake samples with both spices in different concentrations ranging from 0.2-1% were well acceptable by the panelists in terms of appearance, taste, texture, favour and overall quality.
[9] studied effect of oregano herb on dough rheology and bread quality and obtained bread with good baking, textural, nutritional and sensorial properties. Results of sensory analysis suggested that the addition of oregano in the bread had a positive response towards consumer acceptability. Overall acceptability score varied from 8.38 to 7.95 as compared to control (7.90). The bread incorporated with oregano at 2% level had higher acceptability than the control. Oregano also created a favorable taste of milk and its product. Increasing in density of oregano lead to favor, taste, essence and color of yoghurt as compared to control yoghurt that included 0% oregano [10].
Organoleptic  overall satisfactoriness, taste, colour and texture of the fish products at 5% ginger concentration had the best reception and significantly different (P<0.05) when compared to the non treated control after 8 weeks of storage [12].
The highest flavor and improved texture was observed in black Adan instant rice formed by the addition of ginger (3%) after brewed in the process of soaking and cooking [14].
Incorporation of dried and powdered coriander leaf into wheat flour showed that the supplemented breads have in general, enhanced moisture retention capacity, slower staling rate, richer antioxidant content, better baking characteristics, and improved sensory properties in terms of color, texture, mouth feel, and flavor. Powder coriander leaf content between 3.0 and 5.0% (w/w) on wheat flour was found to be the optimum supplementation level offering the highest acceptability of the fortified bread [11].
Antifungal Activities of Spice and Herb
The growth of usually occurring filamentous fungi in foods may result in production of toxin metabolites (aflatoxins, deoxynivalenol, fumonisins, ochratoxin) known as mycotoxins, which can cause a variety of disease in humans, from allergic responses to immunosuppressant and cancer.  Contaminated and poisoning of food by fungi is a major problem, mainly in developing countries. Aspergillus, Fusarium and Penicillium species are the primarily important fungi causing spoilage of foodstuff [13].
Environmentally associate plant extract agents have shown to be great potential as an alternative to synthetic fungicides [15].
[12] studied the antifungal property of ginger solution (2.5, 5, 7.5 and 10 %) on the smoked dried catfish (clarias gariepinus). The Fungi count of the fresh ginger treated samples ranged from mean log 1.65 to 2.28 Cfu/g while the control is 2.76 Cfu/g. In addition the ginger treated smoked samples ranged from 0.70 to 1.35 Cfu/g on Day 0 as against the 2.30 Cfu/g of the control. The result indicated that the higher the concentration of ginger showed the higher the antifungal effects. Catfish treated with both 7.5% and 10% ginger solution had no noticeable mould growth after four weeks of storage. Alcohol extracts of ginger also showed antifungal activity in vitro on   Penicillium digitatum, Aspergillus Niger and Fusarium sp on isolated from naturally infected citrus fruit. Penicillium digitatum exhibited a reduction in a colony development ranging from an average of 52%, 69%, 74 % and 83 % at concentration of 500, 1000, 2000, and 3000ppm respectively. Aspergillus Niger recorded inhibition zones of 56%, 73%, 78% and 91 % at similar plant extract concentrations respectively. The inhibition zones observed in Fusarium sp were 49%, 61%, 69% and 88% respectively [15].
Alcohol extract chilly found 100 % inhibition zones on Penicillium digitatum, Aspergillus Niger and Fusarium sp at concentration of 3000 ppm [15]
[17] Studied the inhibitory property of aqueous extracts of rhizomes of ginger (Zingiber Officinale) and leaves of eucalyptus saligna and polyalthia longifolia on candida albicans. The researcher concluded that the aqueous extracts of these plants offer potential antifungal property against candida albicans, with eucalyptus saligna offering the highest antifungal activity (19mm inhibition zone). The minimum inhibitory concentration of the extracts ranged from 0.05mg/ml to 30mg/ml.
[16] studied the inhibitory property of nigella sativa active components (thymoquinone and amphotericine B) on  Aspergillus Niger and thymoquinone contain in at concentration of 0.062, 0.125, 0.25, 0.5, 1.0 & 2.0 mg/ml showed 16.7, 36.2, 47.3, 67.8,  90.6 & 100% inhibition of growth of Aspergillus niger with these concentrations after 96 hours of incubation. Similarly there were 52.3, 65.1, 76.7, 81.6, 84.7, 85.6, 90.7, 92 and 93.8% inhibition of growth with 0.007, 0.015, 0.031, 0.062, 0.125, 0.25, 0.5, 1.0 and 2.0mg/ml of amphotericin B.
Cinnamaldehyde is an aromatic �, �- unsatured aldehyde, and the key component in essential oils from cinnamon species. It has been antimicrobial activity against a wide range of micro organism including bacteria, yeasts, and molds. Gliadin �lms incorporating cinnamaldehyde were highly effective against fungal growth. P.expansum and A.niger were completely inhibited after storage in vitro for 10 days in the presence of �lms incorporating 3% cinnamaldehyde. Active food packaging with gliadin �lms incorporating 5% cinnamaldehyde increased the shelf-life of both sliced bread and cheese spread foodstuffs. [18]
 The essential oils of spices and herbs showed notable antifungal inhibition zones against fungal strains of tested microorganisms (Aspergillus oryzae, Fusarium culmorum, Fusarium graminearum, Aspergillus brasiliensis and Aspergillus flavus) (table Clove bud oil and oregano oil offered the most successful antifungal activity in direct contact methodAgainst all the fungal strains tested [13] (Table1)Source: [13].*the diameter of the filter paper disc (6 mm) is included. No inhibition (< 6 mm diameter) ; A.o � Aspergillus oryzae, A. f � Aspergillus flavus, A. b � Aspergillus brasiliensis,  F.c � Fusarium culmorum, F. g � Fusarium graminearum
Antibacterial Activities of Spices and Herbs

Antibacterial activity of spice has been noted on bacteria and pathogenic and/or spoiling yeasts, additionally on the production of toxic microbial metabolites.[7]  studied the shelf life of bread with added turmeric powder, turmeric essential oil and turmeric extracted residue at 0.10% by storing for 7 days and noted that turmeric residue adding bread can be stored for 4 days at room temperature and 5 days at 25oC follow standard community of bread had total plate count no more 1x104 colony/sample. It had showed strong antimicrobial activities as compared to the control sample. 
[8] Assayed the effects of Aframomum danielli and Zingiber offcinale crude extract on the storability of fried bean cake snacks. The fried bean cakes were spiced with 0.2, 0.4, 0.6, 0.8 and 1% of both spices. The analysis showed that A. Danielli and Z. ofcinale had inhibitory effect on the bacterial (total viable counts) fried bean cake samples. The antibacterial effect increased with increase in the concentration of the spice extract.
[20] Evaluating the comparative antibacterial effect of ginger (Zingiber officinale) extract (water and ethanol) from root and plant leaves and some antibiotics (chloramphenicol, ampicillin and tetracycline) on staphylococcus aureus and streptococcus pyogenes. The result showed that ginger extract of both the leaf and root showed the highest antibacterial activity against staphylococcus aureus and streptococcus pyogenes while the three antibiotics used. The data from this experiment also showed that ethanol extract were more successful than the water extract.
[19] Studied the antimicrobial effectiveness of n-hexane, ethyl acetate, ethanolic soxhlet and water extracts from ginger roots (1.0%, 0.5%, 0.25%, and 0.125%) on the bacteria of coliform bacillus, staphylococcus epidermidis and streptococcus viridians. The researchers noted that excepting the water extract have antibacterial activities. The results that ginger roots extracts, viz. n-hexane, ethyl acetate and soxhlet extracts have antibacterial activities on colliform bacillus, staphylococcus epidermidis and streptococcus viridians while the water extract did not showed antibacterial activity on the selected bacteria�s. The result indicated that bacteria�s growth inhibition are active at high concentration (1.0 and 0.5%) of extracts and inactive at very low concentrations (0.25%, and 0.125%). Hence ethanolic extracts of ginger also had antibacterial activity against staphylococcus aureus and pseudomonas aeruginosa. The antibacterial activity and inhibition activity of ginger extracts could be accredited to the chemical properties of ginger (sesquiterpenoids, zingiberene, trace monoterpenoid fractions).
Ginger extract at 5% concentration also inhibited the growth of vibrio parahaemolyticus, Bacillus cereus, Proteus mirabilis and Pseudomonas aeruginosa [31]
Oregano bread had a shelf life of 6 days at room temperature.  This may be due to incorporation of oregano obviously increased the total phenol content and the radical scavenging activity of bread. Oregano bread had an increase of phenolics amount of around three-time compared to the quantity contained in the control (0% oregano) [9] 
The essential oil of oregano, clove bud and white thyme oil exhibited the most useful antibacterial activity in direct contact method specifically against E. coli and B. cereus, with inhibition zones of 42 mm, 31.2 mm and 39.3 mm for E. coli, and 45.2 mm, 28 mm and 35.5 for B. cereus respectively, having a bigger inhibition diameter than the control sample (streptomycin 50 mg/ml). These activity might be strictly associated to their chemical components: in fact, carvacrol, thymol and eugenol found in these oils, work on the cell membrane increasing its permeability [13] The antibacterial effect of seed extract of Perinari excelsa  was tested against four clinical isolates namely  S. aureus,  E.coli, K. pneumonia, and  S. typhi  at different concentration  and the result showed ( table 2 ) that the seed extract is helpful though at varying degrees  to all the tested organisms. Both aqueous and ethanolic extracts were the most successful against S. aureus [21]




(Table2)


Source: [21]. :Essential oils and/or their components are becoming progressively more popular as natural antimicrobial agents to be used for a wide variety of purposes, including food preservation, complementary medicine and natural therapeutics. Essential oils extracted from oregano, sage, mint and laurel showed antimicrobial activity against 14 strains of bacteria (table 3) and the diameters of growth inhibition zone ranged from 7 mm to 22 mm for test bacteria (including the diameter of the disc-6 mm). The results of antimicrobial assay showed that the most useful essential oil was extracted from Origanum onites L. then next Laurus nobilus L., Mentha piperita L. and Salvia triloba L., respectively.  Twenty (20 �l) oil extracts applicable in all experiments showed inhibition effect against E. coli and S. typhimurium.  Application of at least 15 �l Origanum onites L had an effect on S. thermophilus ST36, it was seen that only extraction of Origanum onites L.  Oil had an effect on L. rhamnosus CSL.   As well, it was observed that the quantity of oil had an encouraging effect on inhibition levels; Origanum onites L oil can be a good source of antimicrobial agents in some food products for bio preservation and medical applications [23].
[24] Assaying the antimicrobial effect of ginger spices (Zingiber officinale) on the cookies (biscuit) produced from blends of melon flour �egusi� (Critrullus coloynthis l) and wheat flour (Triticum spp). The researcher observed that the ginger possesses antimicrobial properties on mean total viable count, Bacillus, coliform, Staphylococcus   and fungi count. The result                                                    
Reveals that the increase in ginger concentration leads to noticeable decrease (reduction) in microbial load
[25] Assayed the inhibitory action of black cumin (nigella sativa L.) seed extracts were obtained using supercritical carbon dioxide (SCCO2) and conventional soxtec extraction on various bacteria (Bacillus cereus F 4810, Staphylococcus aureus FRI 722, Escherichia coli MTCC 108 and Yersinia enterocolitica MTCC 859). All the tested extracts were found to be active against Gram-positive than Gram-negative bacteria. Thymoquinone, an energetic constituent of nigella sativa seeds, is a pharmacologically active quinone, which possesses several pharmacological properties including analgesic and anti-inflammatory actions [22]








 (Table3)Source: [23]; where: S, sage (Salvia triloba L.); M, mint (Mentha piperita L.); L, laurel (Laurus nobilus L.); O, oregano (Origanum onites L.).





Antioxidant Effects of Spices and Herbs
A great number of publications have reported the antioxidant capability of spices and their extracts in vitro. Antioxidants are useful in health and lowering the risk for cancer, hypertension and heart disease. The naturally occurring antioxidants of therapeutic plants such as polyphenols (phenolic diterpenes, diphenolic diterpenes) and flavonoids show a high capability to donate hydrogen from phenolic hydroxyl groups, thereby forming stable free radicals [27]. Spices and herbs are an excellent source of phenolic compounds (favonoids, phenolic acid and alcohols, stilbenes, tocopherols, tocotrienols), ascorbic acid and carotenoids which have been reported to exhibit good antioxidant activity [28]. 
[28] Assaying the antioxidant activity ((DPPH radical scavenging assay and FRAP ferric-reducing antioxidant power assay) of kesum (Polygonum minus), ginger (Zingiber offcinale) and turmeric (Curcuma longa) extract (without solvent) and the result showed that kesum, ginger and turmeric had good antioxidant activity. A significant and linear relationship existed between the antioxidant activity and phenolic content of kesum, ginger and turmeric, thus indicating that phenolic compounds are major contributors to antioxidant activity (table 4).
[26] studied antioxidant potential of black cumin seed (fixed and essential oil). Antioxidant activity based on coupled oxidation of �-carotene and linoleic acid was determined; black cumin fixed and essential oils inhibited lipid peroxidation by 25.62 and 92.56%, respectively. afterward, DPPH assay was also conducted that is another section to study the antioxidant potential of test materials; black cumin fixed and essential oils repressed DPPH radical formation by 32.32 and 80.25%, respectively. Because of the simplicity and expediency, DPPH assay has an ordinary use in free radical scavenging assessment [29]; [30]. Numerous spices have high levels of phenolics compounds and confirmed high antioxidant capacity (table 4). (Table4)




Source:[28] A greatly positive linear relationship (R2=0.95) obtained between Total equivalent antioxidant capacity values and total phenolic content showed that phenolic compounds in the tested spices (26 common spice) contributed significantly to their antioxidant capacity [1] . (Table5)
Ginger has lowered the free fatty acid (FFA) values, trimethylamine (TMA) values in the processed fish [12]
Source: [1]



 Nutritional effects of spices and herbs
[26] Studied nutritional profile of indigenous cultivar of black cumin seed. Compositional analysis showed that it contains noticeable quantities of carbohydrates, proteins and fats. In addition, potassium, calcium, phosphorous and magnesium were major minerals, even as considerable quantities of sodium, iron, manganese, zinc and copper were also present. Black cumin seeds contain 6.46�0.17, 22.80�0.60, 31.16�0.82, 6.03�0.16 and 4.20�0.11% of moisture, proteins, fat, fiber, ash contents, respectively, while nitrogen free extract was found to be 29.36�0.78%. Mineral composition showed that potassium is leading (808.00�6.61 mg/100g) subsequently calcium (570�21.5 mg/100g), phosphorous (543�10.04 mg/100g) and magnesium (265�4.87 mg/100g), respectively. Furthermore, significant quantities of sodium, iron, manganese, zinc and copper were found in the native variety of black cumin seeds. Fatty acid report of black cumin fixed oil shows that linoleic, oleic and palmitic acids were the main fractions amounting 57.38�1.53, 19.65�0.61 and 12.07�0.87%, respectively. Myristoleic, stearic, eicosenoic and dihomolionolenic acids were present in quantities of 2.49�0.03, 2.35�0.04, and 1.47�0.05 and 1.80�0.11% of the fixed oil, respectively. Black cumin essential oil was evaluated for its dynamic ingredients through GC-MS;  showed�����		
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cFc��
�"�<�h�j�(�8�r�t�z�~���ʯ*�:�L�h�z�������������ޱ�j��������p�x�ص��������������������������������rhpw�B*CJ^JaJph�!h�/*h�/*B*CJ^JaJph�!h�!�h�!�B*CJ^JaJph�hfh*!CJ^JaJ!h�~�h�~�B*CJ^JaJph�h�~�CJ^JaJhfh�CJ^JaJhfh�~�CJ^JaJUhfh.CJ^JaJhfh'UyCJ^JaJ( that it contains thymoquionone, dihydrothmoqionone, p-cymene, carvacrol, �-thujene, thymol, �-pinene, �-pinene and t-anethole as key constituents i.e., 23.25�1.03, 3.84�0.12, 32.02�1.01, 10.38�0.30, 2.40�0.06, 2.32�0.26, 1.48�0.02, 1.72�0.05 and 2.10�0.42%, respectively.
Oregano found to be rich in crude fibre (17.43%), total phenol content (87.80 GAE/100g DW) and antioxidant activity (84.80%) which supports its use as a functional food [9]. The essential oil from oregano contain mainly of carvacrol (65.49%), linalool (12.54%), thujon (11.05%), �- terpinene (1.70%) and borneol (1.59%) [23]. (Table 6)
In mint essential oil, 13 compounds were identified (table 6). The main components were menthol, menthone, menthofuran, 1-8 cineole, pulegan, Tran s coryophyllene. Several studies reported that the essential oil component of mint is menthol, menthone, carvone, menthofuran, 1-8 cineoles [23].
Adding 0.5% fennel seeds with 0.5% oregano leaves as feed additives to rabbit diets contained 2% oil improved daily gain; both nutrient digestibility coefficients and nutritive values as well as realized the highest value of relative economic efficiency and lowered value of feed cost/ kg live body weight [32][33][34][35][36][37][38][39][40][41][42][43][44]




Source: [23].  (Table7)


CONCLUSION
The pleasant flavour and pungency of spices make them essential in the preparation of palatable dishes. Spices and herbs are also very concern both in the industry and in scientific research because of their strong antioxidant, antifungal and antibacterial properties, which exceed many currently, used as natural preservatives. These properties are due to a lot of substances, including some vitamins, favonoids, terpenoids, carotenoids, phenols, minerals, etc. Essential oils and/or their components are becoming progressively more popular as natural antimicrobial agents to be used for a wide variety of purposes, including food preservation.











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