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��ࡱ�>��	�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������[�	��1�bjbj����	8(ΐΐm��*���������+???����SSS8��g<S:���������9�9�9�9�9�9�9$�;�n>B�9-?������9??����9,-,-,-��?�?�9,-�9,-,-�7��8�����p3��:��Sp)�8k9�90:8��>f+��> �8�>?�8���,-������9�9,-���:�������������������������������������������������������������������������>����������	�:	Health Risk Behavior among College Students: A Mixed Method Approach
S.N. Ghosh, Ishita Chauhan, Rosy Chhabra
Abstract
The global prevalence of HIV appears to have been stabilized in this decade, but risk of infection already spread and unknown serostatus of different demographics still looms large. There is difference in the pattern of risk behavior leading to transmission of diverse type of sexually transmitted infection in different population groups. Youth and young adults aged 15-24 years account for 45 percent of new infection worldwide and continuing spread of new HIV infections in this age group is still a cause for major concern for everyone. Early research in this regard focused on major routes of transmission of virus to evolve preventive strategies. Keeping in view the continuing higher rates of HIV infection in this younger age group, present study intends to identify psychological factors and health risk behavior among college going youth and young adults. The psychological variables of life stress, anxiety and satisfaction with life and self efficacy were assessed using standardized instruments and input on health risk behavior was obtained through Focus Group Discussions (FGD). One hundred boys and girls college students (50 females and 50 males in each group, age range 19-22 years) were randomly selected using probability proportion to size (PPS) method. The result revealed that females report experiencing higher negative impact of life changes than their male counterparts in general (t=2.79, df=98, p<.01). The male students report significantly higher (t=2.67, df=98, p<.05) self efficacy, in effect reflecting stronger belief in their potential to deal with life�s demanding situation. Six focus group discussions (FGD) (three each with females and males) were conducted. The FGDs results revealed gender specific stresses. While females reported more familial stress and stress associated with preferential treatment to boys in the family, boys reported more stress related to interpersonal relationship linked to love relationships. Although, both the groups reported negative emotions to be an antecedent for health risk, girls however, tended to express more stable emotions than the boys. Peer pressure was reported as a major issue by both genders, boys however reported to have stronger sense of self belief and reported being more confident in handling demanding situations. 



Health Risk Behavior among College Students: A Mixed Method Approach 
High risk behaviors are very common among youth, often leading to undesired negative consequences for youth and can result in severe injuries and even death. In the tradition of epidemiology, the use of the concept of risk has been essentially biomedical, reflecting a concern for morbidity and mortality (Jessor, 1991). Given that, epidemiological research primarily focuses on agents/factors that are responsible for increased probability of harmful outcomes that compromise health, quality of life or life itself. Such agents, conditions or factors are referred to as �risk factors� and the identification of such risk factors has been primarily in the domain of biology and partially in the physical environment. Biological risk factors predict the probability of diseases and identification of risk factors has facilitated not only establishing causal understanding of infirmity but has also assisted zeroing in on the point of intervention (Jessor 1991). With the rise of chronic and communicable diseases in the recent times and research evidence revealing definite role of psycho-social factors in these ailments , there has been an eminent need to expand the field of epidemiological research and include social environmental and behavioral factors in its field of study. Studies have shown psycho-social factors have implications for heart disease, hypertension, and sexually transmitted infections (O�Leary, Jemmott, Teitelman, Heeren, Ngwane, Icard and Lewis, 2015; Zohreh, Hamid Taher, Alireza, Masoumeh and Gholamreza, 2013; Teplin, Mericle, McClelland and Abram, 2003; Friedman, Schwartz, Schnall, Landsbergis, Pieper, Gerin, Pickering, 2001; Boyer, Shafer, Wibbelsman, Seeberg, Teitle, Lovell, 2000). In addition, the identification of socio-psychological factors has paved the way for the emergence of the sub discipline of behavioral epidemiology. Furthermore, researches reveal that, much of the burden of illnesses including HIV/AIDS and STIs in the recent times have a link to typical patterns of human behavior (Du, Crook, Whitener, Albright, Greenawalt and Zurlo, 2015; Badenhorst, Van Staden , Coetsee ,2008; Guiella and Madise, 2007). 
Youth go through a time of rapid change and usually at this time of emerging adulthood thy go through many physiological, psychological and behavioral changes with rapidly expanding patterns of social interactions and relationships. These life demands pose excessive load on youth to accommodate in their rapidly changing world and exposes them to severe stress and negative emotions (de Guzman, 2014; Lerner and Steinberg, 2009; Dev Rev, 2008; Byrne, Davenport and Mazanov, 2007; Williams, Holmbeck and Greenley, 2002). As demonstrated in research, the transition from adolescence/youth to adulthood is typically characterized by exposure to health risk and health disparities which compromise with future health and development of youth (Harris, Gordan-larson, Chantala and Udry 2006, Fox et al. 2007, MacManus et al 2007). Researchers have also suggested that health risk behavior peaks not only during adolescence but much more during the period of emerging adulthood. These include unprotected sex, substance abuse, rash and drunken driving (Arnett, 1992., Bachman, Johston, O�Mallcy and Schulenberg, 1996). 
Theoretical concepts explaining the mechanism of risk behavior are based on social-cognitive approach (Bandura, 1986). These health behavior theories attempts to explain reason behind individual�s tendency to abstain from health risk behavior and adopt healthy behavior (Conner and Norman, 1995; Wallston, 1994). The social cognitive theory helps in transforming knowledge of health risk and benefits of healthy habits into effective health practices. The theory suggests that several factors in combination determine health promotion and disease prevention. The core factors that provide impetus to the positive health practices include knowledge, appraisal of health risks and benefits, perceived self-efficacy, outcome expectations about cost and benefits of health habits, along with dealing with the barriers and facilitators to the goals that individuals set for themselves (Schwarzer and Renner, 2000). Psychosocial factors have also been reported to be a significant issue in health risk behavior leading to negative health consequences (Berg et al.,2013). Personal and situational variables, for example perceived stress, emotions, life satisfaction and self-efficacy have been found to be closely associated with risk behavior and subjective health conditions (Kaplan, Madden, Mijanovich, Purcaro, 2012., Choi, Rush and Henry, 2013., Mazur and Woynarowska, 2004, Schwarzer and Luszcznska, 2005). Taken together these studies indicate that psychological distress has negative consequences on wellbeing which in turn has direct influence on overall life satisfaction (Bayram and Bilgel, 2008, Fredrickson, 2001). 
In the present study, we seek to understand the gender difference in terms of level of life stress, anxiety, along with individual ability to deal with distress and global judgment of life satisfaction among youth/young adults in two undergraduate colleges of Shimla, Himachal Pradesh. The state is known for its natural beauty and 90% of the state�s population lives in rural districts though Shimla district as the state capital has one of the highest concentrations of urban population. 
Qualitative inputs were obtained from the study sample to explore health risk behavior vis-�-vis personal and situational factors. The study selected undergraduate students from first and second year, keeping in view that these youths might be at a new transitional period of their life and might be grappling with the issue of establishing self identity and dealing with personal and interpersonal problems emanating from their interaction with their new environment. The primary aim of the study is to assess psychosocial factors and emotions among male and female college students. The study also intends to explore personal and situational factors those influence risk behavior of students.
Method: 
Sample: The students were randomly selected using probability proportion to size (PPS) method (CDC, 2007). Hundred college students (50 males and equal number of females) were invited to participate in the study. The sample of students (both males and females) was drawn randomly from the enrolment register. Fifty students were selected using the following procedure: there were 125 students in a class, to obtain an interval the number of students (n=125) was divided by the number of students to be obtained (n=50). Thus, the interval obtained was 2.5 considered as 3, meant that one student was selected at an interval of every three students with a random start using random table. All the students were selected from the local government college, Rajkiya Kanya Maha Vidalia (all girls) and government college Sanjauli (coed). The age range of the students was 18-22 years (Mean+ SD age of boys and girl students was 19.4 + 1.2 and 20.1 + 1.3 years, respectively). None of the students were married and all of them had a middle class socio-economic and urban/ rural background. 

Data Collection:
The present study is a mixed method research wherein both quantitative and qualitative data was collected using different strategies and methods. Quantitative component consisted of cross-sectional survey complemented by qualitative method of focus groups. This method offer researchers a promising path to support a rigorous inquiry. Mixed method design provides opportunity to compensate for inherent weakness in either of the methods and makes the most of strength of both and offset inevitable method biases (Greene, 2007; Harwell, 2011). The data was collected sequentially, that is quantitative followed by qualitative and was subjected to analysis and interpretation subsequently.
Quantitative:
Tools Used: 
Life Experiences Survey (LES; Sarason, Johnson and Siegal, 1978): Life Experiences Survey (LES) was used to obtain a self report of positive and negative events experienced by the subjects over the previous year, and the perceived stress associated with those events. The scale contains two sections. Section (i) designed for general population and section (ii) for student population. In the present study later was used. This section contained 10 life events specific to student population.
State-Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI; Spielberger, Gorsuch & Lushene, 1970): A-trait scale of STAI consists of 20 items that asks people to describe how they generally feel. Anxiety as a personality trait reflect relatively stable individual differences in anxiety proneness i.e., to perceive variety of situations as threatening and respond to these situations with differential elevations in state anxiety.
Satisfaction with Life Scale (SWLS; Diener, Emmons, Larsen & Griffin, 1985): The Satisfaction with Life Scale comprising of five items was used to assess satisfaction with the respondent�s life as a whole.

(IV) 	General Self-Efficacy Scale (Schwarzer & Jerusalem, 1992): The General Self-Efficacy Scale assesses the strength of an individual�s belief in his or her own ability to respond to novel or difficult situations and to deal with associated obstacle or setbacks. The scale comprised of 10 statements and the respondents are required to indicate the extent to which each statement applies to them.
Procedure:
The students were randomly selected using probability proportion to size (PPS) method (CDC, 2007). Hundred college students (50 males and equal number of females) were invited to participate in the study. 
After establishing a good rapport with the participants and giving them information regarding the present study, an oral consent regarding their participation in the study was obtained from the participants. Standard instructions pertaining to each scale were given to the participants before administration of the scales.  
Qualitative
Four focus group discussions two each with females n=15 (7 and 8 participants in each group) and males, n=16 (8 participants in each group) were conducted. At the beginning of the focus group discussion, participants were informed about the purpose of the study. The facilitator solicited their participation; subsequently the demographic information (age, gender, background) was collected. The focus groups began with the facilitator asking questions based on already prepared schedule on specific topics such as psychosocial stresses, personal and situational variables vis-a-vis health risk behavior. All subject participated in the study on their own will. Demographic information of the participants are provided in the table-1.
Objectives of Focus Group Discussions:
To obtain an insight into college student�s perceived stress, anxiety and their link with health risk behavior
To get an understanding of self belief and how it affects health risk behavior.
To find out how college students view satisfaction with life and health risk behavior. 
Selection: Participants for the focus group were those who were selected for the study and had filled the self report questionnaire. Twenty three males and nineteen females consented to participate in the focus group discussion. Sixteen males (n=16) and fifteen females (n=15) finally turned up for the discussion. Two FGDs on males with eight participants in each group, and two FGDs with females with eight and seven participants in each group were conducted. The detail sample characteristics are given in the table 1.
Table I
VariablesFemales (n=15)Males (n=16)Group I (n=8)Group II (n=7)Group I (n=8)Group II (n=8)Age range
M           
SD18-21years
M= 19.37     SD= 3.1818-22years
M=18.85       SD=4.9118-22years
M=19.75     SD=7.7718-22years
M=19.62     SD=3.88EducationIst year     7
IInd Year    1Ist year     5
IInd Year    2Ist year     5
IInd Year    3Ist year     5
IInd Year    3ReligionAll HinduAll HinduAll HinduAll HinduParent�s Occupation
Government job   
Business
Agriculturist/Horticulturist
5 (62%)
1(12.5%)
2(25%)
4(57.14%)
0(0.0%)
3(42.85%)
5 (62.5%)
1 (12.5%)
2(25%)
3 (37.5%)
2(25%)
3 (37.5%)Background
Rural         
Urban        
5
3
4
3
4
4
2
3Results:
The t-test was applied to find out the difference between the male and female students with regard to life event stress (positive and negative), anxiety, life satisfaction and self-efficacy.




Table II
Positive and Negative Impact of Life Events, Anxiety, Life Satisfaction and Self-Efficacy in Male (n=50) and Female (n=50) College Students.
Sr.No.VariablesFemalesMalest-values1Positive life ChangesMean= 4.66
SD=3.27Mean= 5.68
SD= 3.411.522Negative Life ChangesMean= 5.80
SD= 6.47Mean= 2.80
SD= 3.812.79**3AnxietyMean= 47.10
SD= 8.76Mean= 46.84
SD= 7.490.164Life SatisfactionMean= 24.96
SD= 5.92Mean= 26.68
SD= 4.911.585Self EfficacyMean= 29.10
SD= 4.79Mean= 32.04
SD= 3.272.60* *p <.01 
**P<.05 
It is evident from the table-1 that female college students reported significantly higher negative impact of life changes (df=98, t=2.79, p<.01). The higher mean score of these girl students (M=5.80) in terms of impact of life changes perceived as more negative than the male students (M= 2.80) indicates that these female students have a tendency to appraise negative life events as more threatening and beyond their immediate control.
The table-1 also indicates that in terms of self-efficacy there was a significant difference found between male and female college students (df=98, t -= 2.60, p<..05). The male students reported higher mean score (M= 32.04) than their female counterparts (M= 29.10) on self-efficacy. This finding suggests that male college students had a stronger belief in their potential to deal efficiently with a demanding situation than their comparable female counterparts.
The result of the focus groups revealed that with regard to psychosocial factors, several key issues had bearings on risk behaviors. Male and female college students felt that age is a vital factor in risk taking, they feel more impulsive to take risk, however both the groups reported that males are more risk prone than the females. In addition, other factors such as personal, interpersonal, familial, social, awareness about one�s own capabilities in dealing with health related issues, overall perspective of life and interestingly issues related to non-availability of preventive and intervention services related to adolescent health was pointed out in the focus group discussions.
Findings of FGDs:
Focus groups were conducted to explore the antecedents of risk behavior and the outlook of the participants for risky behavior. All focus group participants reported strong impact of psycho-social factors such as perceived stress (both positive and negative) along with negative emotions. They also reported that their social environment often leads to harmful health behavior. Some of the participants mentioned that stress and negative emotional factors together are underlying cause of health risk behavior such as smoking, substance abuse, and risky sexual behavior. Similar findings have also been reported in research with regard to psychosocial factors and health risk behavior (Anda, Williamson, Escobedo, Mast, Giovino et al., 1990; Breslau, Kilbey and Andreski, 1991; Artinian, Washington, Flack, Hockman and Jen, 2006; Cohen and Lichtenstein, 1990).
Association between life stress, health risk behavior and negative wellbeing consequences has been well documented (Dohrenwend, 2002. Kemny, 2003; Magid, Colder, Strand, Nichter and Nichter, 2009). Behavioral epidemiology in this regard has strongly endorsed psychological factors, social environment and behavior as leading cause of morbidity and mortality in chronic and communicable diseases (Jessor, 1991). Focus group participants identified many such stressors as specifically creating a risk for poor health behavior:
Familial stress: 
Poor parent child relationship due to disturbed family environment was one of the factors reported. Parental conflict, lack of parent child relationship and parental support were other factors stated by the participants. They report family conflict, domestic fights and violence results in taking on deviant behavior by many youth including risky health behavior. Both males and female college students claimed peaceful family conditions and healthy upbringing inculcates good moral values and prevents tension in the family as well as risk engagements of their wards. One of the participant reported �once they entered the college, parents do not monitor their whereabouts, this results as an off the hook attitude that in turn effects risky behavior.� Females however, also pointed out that preferential treatment to the male siblings in the family often leads to a feeling of deprivation for girls which might lead them to take on to risky behavior. 
Academic Stress:
 Participants (both males and females) reported ever since starting formal school education, the children are subjected to academic pressure from school and home. According to them, such pressures are further fueled by increasing competition, expectation of parents to achieve good grades to pursue better academic and/or professional career. This becomes exhausting for them and when unable to meet the challenges they take recourse to harmful behavior.
Self belief in dealing with health related issues: 
Participants were not fully able to express their personal beliefs on health related issues. They were rather tentative about beliefs regarding their capacity to seek health related information. Health risk behavior for them is an adventure and is not a worrisome factor. For some youths, these health risk behaviors might lead to little calamity sometimes but they all reported, that is not the case most times. Males were however more confident in dealing with such calamities than the females. Females were uncertain or ambivalent about decisions to get involved in risky health behavior. They revealed their sense of control in their life is low hence their decisions in life are more often tied to their relationships. Their decisions are more interdependent than independent. For males, risk taking in terms of behavior is �exciting and fun�. Males were more likely to report a tendency to take certain amount of risk and show deviance with respect to health risk behavior. Males reported confidence in dealing with life crisis situations where as females reported comparatively low self-confidence. Female students were very concerned about any past behaviors that could be even considered �somewhat risky� and anticipated future worries. They reported that the mindset gets them into a negative spiral of thoughts and behavior. Together, these stresses and worries associated with low self capability, set off a loop of negativity, leading to health risk behavior such as smoking, alcohol or predisposing them to indulge in risky sexual acts in order to seek emotional support from the opposite �confidant� sex.
Perceived satisfaction with life and risk behavior: 
Males and females reported �satisfaction with life� as a significant factor in risk taking behavior. Lack of satisfaction with life affects the motivation to engage in healthy behavior for both genders. For males, competing priorities such as doing well in studies, finding job or a hedonistic life creates a paradox that at times evokes a propensity to indulge in risky health behavior. Overall dissatisfaction with life according to the participants sets in a despair causing indecisiveness and being negatively affected by peer pressure.
Table II Psycho-social factors and Health Risk Behavior with representative quotes: (quotes are normally written with the paragraphs � consider that!)
ThemesQuotationsFamilial stress and emotions�We experience stress due to conflict at home. Parents vent their anger on us. [Males and Females]
It seems double standard when my father is mentally and/or physically stressed he takes alcohol but tells me not to drink, but I feel like following him to relieve my stress.[Male]
In our get-togethers I am shy and not very expressive but when I take alcohol mind goes wild and away from all inhibitions, I feel I can enjoy better. [Male] Academic stressDuring peak study days or exam time I feel heavy and cigarette relieves me off my tension and apprehension about my performance. [Male]Self-belief in dealing with health related issues
Life crisis makes me sometimes feel that I will never be able to overcome them and at times I also join others who are having fun in life [Female and Male] 
I smoked in the company of boys, it is fun and makes me feel equal and empowered [Female]Perceived satisfaction with life and risk behavior
Stress or no stress, we smoke cigarette filled with Bhang (Cannabis). It makes us feel satisfied with life.[Males]Discussion:
The aim of the present study was to assess the level of psychosocial stress and personal variables of anxiety, self-efficacy, and life satisfaction and qualitatively assess the health risk behavior among the male and female undergraduate college students. The findings of study reveal an existence of gender difference in the impact of negative event of life changes. Female college students reported experiencing greater impact of negative life events than their male counterparts. The present finding is consistent with the previous research findings. A Meta analytic study (Tamres, Janicki and Helgesen, 2002) indicated that in all studies, women reported higher level of stress than the men. Studies have recognized the importance of gender difference in stress research and have consistently revealed that women report higher level of stress than men. Matud (2004) studied men and women in terms of number of life events reported and life event change experienced by them and found that women were more stressed than men even when controlling for number of life events reported and changes experienced. These research findings do not make it clear that gender difference in terms of stress is actually due to existing physical differences or gender norms. Some studies also do suggest that women may be more willing to admit to feeling stressed however, men believe that not showing stress is socially acceptable hence, they refrain from reporting actual level (Matheny, Ashby, and Cupp, 2005). 
To get a more in-depth understanding of gender differences, we also conducted focus group discussions with some of the participants. Although, FGDs did not furnish quantitative difference, they did however offer information on gender specific life events that bothered males and females differentially. Similar to our findings, several studies reported female students were more stressed than males (Shah, Hasan, Malik, Sand, Sreeramareddy, 2010., Dahlin,Joneb, Runseson, 2005). Madhyasthyastha et al. (2014) did not find any gender difference in terms of stress, however reported that to cope with stress females adopt more emotional focused coping as compared to males.
Another finding of our study revealed that male students had higher self-efficacy than female students. Gupta and Kumar (2010) studied male and female students on self-efficacy and found that males scored significantly higher than female students on self-efficacy as well. They argued that such findings can be attributed to gender disparity in our culture. They argued that such inequalities are acquired since childhood due to differential treatment meted out to boys and girls in the family and society. Similar findings were brought to the fore by female participants in FGDs as well. Self-efficacy is important cognitive-social indicator that plays vital role during adolescent development. Self-efficacy has been found to raise adolescent�s effort and uplift resilience in the face of setbacks (Bernard, 2004; Bradley and Corwyn, 2001). Parents are major contributors to children self-efficacy (Meesters and Muris, 2004; Pajares, 2002). Empirical evidence reveals that women are more oriented towards interpersonal relationships (Gabriel and Gardner, 1999), whereas men task oriented (Heinrich, 1991). 
The risk behavior among youth and young adults is on the rise and is of grave concern all over the world. There is an immediate need of effort to address these behaviors. To do so effectively, we need to identify and understand the factors those contribute to risk behavior among youth. An accurate and comprehensive understanding of health risk behavior among youth must necessarily include both personal and environmental factors. Studies have reported major life changes and chronically stressful conditions as significant contributors of stress (Lazarus and DeLongis, 1983). Just like our findings, others have found a strong connection between stress and negative wellbeing consequences, however, this relation is influenced by the way people cope with stress than by mere presence of stressful events (DeLongis et al., 1988). Identification and impact of life event changes along personal variables of emotions and self-efficacy might help understand the complex relationship between stress-health risk behavior and negative wellbeing as system of processes rather than a unitary causal relation.
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 	Department of Psychology, Himachal Pradesh University, Shimla-171 005 (H.P.) India. email: snghpu@gmail.com
 	Research Scholar, Department of Psychology, Himachal Pradesh University, Shimla-171 005 (H.P.) India
 	Department of Pediatrics, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Yeshiva University, 1300 Morris Park Ave, VE Building #5, Room 6B32, Bronx, NY 10461, USA e-mail: rosy.chhabra@einstein.yu.edu









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