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POSTTRAUMATIC STRESS, PHYSICAL HEALTH AND CHRONIC PAIN: THE ROLE OF HYPERAROUSAL AND DEPRESSIVE SYMPTOMS
LYDIA G�MEZ-P�REZA,C, PHD, MICHELE WESSAB, PHD, AND HERTA FLORC, PHD.
A. ESCUELA DE PSICOLOG�A. PONTIFICIA UNIVERSIDAD CAT�LICA DE CHILE. SANTIAGO, CHILE.
B. DEPARTMENT OF CLINICAL PSYCHOLOGY AND NEUROPSYCHOLOGY, INSTITUTE OF PSYCHOLOGY, JOHANNES GUTENBERG-UNIVERSITY, MAINZ, GERMANY
C. DEPARTMENT OF CLINICAL AND COGNITIVE NEUROSCIENCE, CENTRAL INSTITUTE OF MENTAL HEALTH, MEDICAL FACULTY MANNHEIM, UNIVERSITY OF HEIDELBERG, MANNHEIM, GERMANY
Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Lydia G�mez P�rez, Escuela de Psicolog�a. Pontificia Universidad Cat�lica de Chile. Campus San Joaqu�n. Avda.Vicu�a Mackenna 4860, Macul, Santiago, Chile. Telephone: +56 23544850. Fax: +56 25533092
Email:  HYPERLINK "mailto:lgomeze@uc.cl" lgomeze@uc.cl. Additional email  HYPERLINK "mailto:lydiagp2@gmail.com" lydiagp2@gmail.com

Abstract
Background: This cross-sectional study aimed to examine the association of posttraumatic stress symptoms (PTSS; i.e., reexperiencing, avoidance/numbing, and hyperarousal) and depressive symptoms with: (a) physical health symptoms, (b) pain symptoms, (c) and the presence of chronic pain among trauma-exposed individuals.  The mediational role of depressive symptoms in the relationship between each PTSS cluster and physical health symptoms, pain symptoms, or presence of chronic pain was also tested.  Method: Participants (N = 100) were interviewed and completed some questionnaires. Results: Regression analysis showed that both hyperarousal and depressive symptoms accounted for unique variances of physical health symptoms (partial r2 were .03 and .11, respectively). Bootstrap analysis indicated that whereas hyperarousal was both directly and indirectly (through depressive symptoms) related to physical health symptoms, avoidance/numbing and re-experience were only indirectly related with physical health symptoms via depressive symptoms. For pain symptoms, only depressive symptoms were uniquely related with this variable (partial r2 was .05).  Depressive symptoms mediated the relationship between the three PTSS clusters and pain symptoms, but not the relationship between the clusters and the presence of chronic pain. Hyperarousal was the only variable uniquely and directly related with the presence of chronic pain (OR = 3.01; p <.05). Conclusions: These data highlight the importance of treating depressive and hyperarousal symptoms in order to improve physical health and pain in trauma-exposed individuals.
Keywords: Mediation analysis, reexperiencing, avoidance/numbing, bootstrap analysis, trauma exposure, chronic pain. 

Introduction
Extant evidence supports a negative relationship between both posttraumatic stress symptoms (PTSS) and depressive symptoms (DS) and physical health symptoms (PHS; [1,2]). For instance, both PTSS and DS accounted for unique proportion of variance (variability of the dependent variable that is accounted only by one of the independent variables) in PHS among U.S. soldiers who had been deployed in Irak [2]. However, not all PTSS clusters seem to be equally related to PHS. Two studies pointed to hyperarousal as the only PTSS cluster explaining unique PHS variance [3,4] even after controlling for DS [5]. Miranda et al. [6] found that both hyperarousal and DS uniquely mediated the relationship between trauma exposure and PHS among female undergraduate students with a history of trauma. Conversely, Zoellner, Goodwin, & Foa [7] found that reexperiencing, but not hyperarousal or avoidance, were associated with self-reported PHS.  By contrast, only avoidance/numbing accounted for unique PHS variance among intimate partner violence victims [8]. Finally, in a recent study only DS but not PTSS accounted for unique PHS variance among female sexual assault survivors with PTSD [9]. Further investigation about the relationship between each of the specific PTSS clusters and PHS � in which DS are also considered as predictors � is needed. Knowing which specific aspects of the posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) phenotype related with physical health is important to clarify over which aspects of mental health to intervene in order to prevent negative health consequences. This research may also contribute to understand the nature of PTSD, and provide construct validity to its symptoms clusters, which have been recently questioned [10]. It may also help to clarify whether the interventions aimed to protect physical health among trauma-exposed individuals must emphasize the treatment of PTSS or the treatment of DS. Therefore, our first aim was to examine the association of each PTSS clusters (i.e., reexperiencing, avoidance/numbing, and hyperarousal) and DS � considered concurrently as independent variables in a regression analyses � and PHS among trauma-exposed individuals. We were interested in elucidating which symptoms accounted for unique PHS variance.   
According to the theory of Schnurr and Green [11], DS may affect physical health not only as a primary reaction to trauma exposure but also as a consequence of PTSD. In fact, some evidence supports the mediational role of DS in the relationship between PTSD and PHS. Namely, DS fully mediated the relationship between PTSS and health complaints among PTSD in two studies conducted with patients with PTSD [6, 12]. By contrast, the results of one study conducted with deployed and non-deployed peace keepers showed that PTSD symptoms had both a direct and an indirect influence on health through DS [5]. A limitation of these studies was that only the participant�s total PTSS score � and not the scores in the specific symptom clusters that shape PTSD � was considered DS may only mediate the influence of some of the PTSS clusters (but not all of them) over PHS, but this hypothesis has never been tested. Therefore, our second objective was to examine whether DS mediated the relationship between each of the PTSS clusters and PHS.
Physical health is a multidimensional construct [11] including pain as one component, and PTSD and pain � and even CP syndromes � often co-occur [13].  As in the case of PHS, not all the PTSD symptoms clusters seem to be related with pain symptoms in the same way. For instance, among person with chronic pain (CP), Beckham et al. [14] found that reexperiencing was related to pain disability, overall pain index, and current pain level. Reexperience has also been found to relate to migraine episodes frequency [15].  By contrast, L�pez-Mart�nez, Ram�rez-Maestre, & Steve [16], found that emotional numbing and hyperarousal were related with CP outcomes; whereas Cyders, Burris, & Carlson [17] found that only hyperarousal predicted pain severity among patients with CP.  More research investigating the particular role of each of the PTSD clusters and pain appears desirable. Therefore, our third objective was to examine which of the PTSS clusters was uniquely related with pain symptoms � as well as with the presence of CP � when considered concurrently with DS as independent variables in a regression analyses.
As in the case of PHS, some authors consider DS to mediate the PTSD and pain relationship. Poundja et al. [18] found depression fully mediated the relationship between PTSD and pain severity among male veterans with PTSD; whereas Roth, Geisser, & Bates [19] found PTSS were directly related to DS and that DS were directly and indirectly related to pain among patients with accident-related CP. However, these authors did not considered the influence of each PTSS clusters separately. Therefore, our fourth objective was to examine whether DS mediated the relationship between each PTSS cluster and two dependent variables: pain symptoms and presence of CP. 
		Materials and Methods
Participants and procedure
One hundred trauma-exposed individuals (35 men and 65 women) were recruited through organizations offering services for victims of violence, self- help groups, and newspaper announcements. We advertised that we were looking for people who had had a traumatic event with or without adverse consequences. Thirty seven percent participants had experienced the 1988 air show catastrophe at Ramstein, 26.9% answered to an article in a local newspaper describing the study, 3.2% survived a bus accident in the Rhein-Main area, and 32.3% answered to a flyer distributed by a non-profit organization caring for crime victims. Two participants were removed because they were multivariate outliers (Mahalanobis distance, p <.001). Therefore, data analyses were conducted with 98 participants. Fifty-six per cent of them indicated their worst traumatic experience was an accident, 15.3% being victim of violence perpetrated by a friend, 9.2% being victim a sexual abuse perpetrated by a close one, 5.1% being victims of violence perpetrated by a family member, 4% having suffered a life-threatening illness, and 1% experiencing a natural disaster. �Other� was indicated as the worst trauma category by 9.2%.  Whereas 70.4% were exposed to a traumatic event produce by chance, 29.6% experienced an event caused intentionally by another human being. Time of trauma ocurrence was more than 5 years ago in 61%, between three and five years ago in 9.1%, between six months and three years in 21.6%, and less than six months ago in 7.9%. Fifty-two per cent were diagnosed with current PTSD, 21.4% with current major depression, and 18.4% with lifetime CP according to DSM- IV [20].  Comorbid major depression was present in 34.6% and comorbid pain in 27.5% of the patients with PTSD.  Participants with a current or past alcohol or drug dependence or psychotic disorder were excluded from the study. The Ethics Committee of the Medical Faculty Mannheim, Heidelberg University approved this study. We informed participants about the purpose of the study, which was part of a larger investigation on the psychobiology of PTSD, and they gave written informed consent. All participants were interviewed by a trained clinical psychologist to determine the presence of mental disorder and then completed the questionnaires described below. 
Measures
PTSD was assessed using the German version of the Clinician-Administered PTSD Scale (CAPS; [21]). Participants reported the PTSD symptoms experienced during the past month. The CAPS is one of the most widely employed PTSD interviews and presents excellent psychometric properties [22]. Its scores for the three PTSD symptoms clusters (reexperiencing, hyperarousal, and avoidance/numbing) were used. Cronbach�s alpha for the subscales were .85, .87, and .84, respectively in the present sample. The Freiburg Complaints Scale (FCS; [23]) was employed to assess PHS and pain symptoms.  It comprises 80 items organized in nine subscales: general well-being, fatigue, cardiovascular complaints, gastro-intestinal complaints, neck problems, tension, emotional reactivity, pain, and hypersensitivity. Participants indicated whether they experience their symptoms never, approximately twice per year, approximately twice per month, three times per week, or almost every day.  The FCS presents adequate psychometric properties. The total score of these questionnaire has Cronbach�s alpha levels between 0.95-0.97 [24], and was positively associated with physician visits [25]. In our sample, Cronbach�s alpha coefficients were .97 for the total PHS score and .76 for the pain symptoms subscale.  The Structured Clinical Interview for DSM-IV (SCID; [26]) was used to assess the presence of comorbid mental disorders (e.g. depression, CP disorder). The German version of the Beck Depression Inventory (BDI;[27]) was used in order to assess DS. Participants rated their feelings during the past two weeks. Cronbach�s alpha for this scale was .83 in our sample. 
Data analysis
To examine the association of the three PTSD clusters (reexperiencing, avoidance/numbing, and hyperarousal) and DS with PHS (Aim 1) and pain symptoms (Aim 3), we conducted two hierarchical multiple regression analyses. To examine the association of the three PTSD symptom clusters and DS and the presence of CP (Aim 5), we performed a hierarchical logistic regression analysis. We introduced age and sex in the first step of all analyses; reexperiencing, avoidance/numbing, and hyperarousal in the second step; and DS in the third step. Sex was coded with 0 for women and 1 for men. The category of reference was women.
To test mediation (Aims 2, 4, and 5), regression models with bootstrapping were conducted using a SPSS macro (�INDIRECT�; [28]  ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Preacher</Author><Year>2008</Year><RecNum>1266</RecNum><DisplayText>(Preacher &amp; Hayes, 2008)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>1266</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="wazxdv9fjxwar9evp2p5sa2hzx5swxxxfffw">1266</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Preacher, K. J.</author><author>Hayes, A. F.</author></authors></contributors><auth-address>Preacher, KJ&#xD;Univ Kansas, Dept Psychol, 1415 Jayhawk Blvd,Rm 426, Lawrence, KS 66045 USA&#xD;Univ Kansas, Dept Psychol, Lawrence, KS 66045 USA&#xD;Ohio State Univ, Columbus, OH 43210 USA</auth-address><titles><title>Asymptotic and resampling strategies for assessing and comparing indirect effects in multiple mediator models</title><secondary-title>Behavior Research Methods</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Behavior Research Methods</full-title></periodical><pages>879-891</pages><volume>40</volume><number>3</number><keywords><keyword>structural-equation models</keyword><keyword>confidence-intervals</keyword><keyword>product</keyword><keyword>socialization</keyword><keyword>intervention</keyword><keyword>performance</keyword><keyword>program</keyword><keyword>limits</keyword></keywords><dates><year>2008</year><pub-dates><date>Aug</date></pub-dates></dates><isbn>1554-351X</isbn><accession-num>ISI:000257991700027</accession-num><urls><related-urls><url>&lt;Go to ISI&gt;://000257991700027</url></related-urls></urls><language>English</language></record></Cite></EndNote>) that generated 5000 bootstrap samples to calculate 95% bias-corrected confidence intervals. Bootstrapping has demonstrated numerous advantages over classical methods to test for mediation [29]. According to this procedure, the only condition for mediation is finding a statistically significant indirect effect [28.29]. The specific indirect effect of a predictor (e.g., hyperarousal) on a dependent variable (e.g., PHS) via a particular mediator (DS in our case) is defined as the product of the unstandardized regression coefficient of the path linking the predictor and the mediator (a) and the unstandardized regression coefficient of the path linking the mediator and the dependent variable (b). To bootstrap the sampling distribution of the indirect effect, a sample of size n cases is taken from the original sample. Using this new resample size (n) a and b values for the mediator are estimated, and ab (the indirect effect) calculated. This process is repeated k times (5,000 in our analyses) yielding 5,000 estimates of the indirect effect of the predictor on the dependent variable. The distributions of these 5,000 estimates serve as empirical, nonparametric approximations of the sampling distributions of the indirect effect of interest. The bootstrap confidence interval (CI) for the population-specific indirect effect of this mediator is derived by sorting the 5,000 indirect effect values from low to high. Values defining the lower and upper 100% (�/2) of the indirect effect distribution are then found and taken as the lower and upper limits of the 100% CI (1 " �) for the population indirect effect, where � is the desired nominal Type I error rate. When CIs of the indirect effect do not include 0, this effect is considered statistically significant. 
Three bootstraping procedure were conducted considering PHS as the dependent variable. In each of these procedures one of the PTSS clusters (reexperiencing, avoidance/numbing, or hyperarousal) was considered the predictor and DS the mediator. That is, the indirect effects of higher scores in the PTSS cluster on more severe PHS via higher DS were examined. In addition, other additional six boopstraping procedures � similar to the previous ones � were employed (three using pain symptoms as the dependent variable and other three considering CP as the dependent variable). In all these analyses, age and sex were included as covariates. 
No missing data were detected.  Preliminary analyses showed all the variables approximated a normal distribution. Descriptive statistics and correlations among the variables are presented in Table 1. 
Results
Relationship between PTSS and PHS
A regression model including age and sex significantly accounted for 5.4% of the PHS variance, F [2, 95] = 3.74, p <.05, with age being the only variable significantly contributing to the model (see Table 2).  A second model adding the PTSS clusters significantly explained 32.3% of the PHS variance, F [5, 92] = 10.27, p <.001.  In this model, only hyperarousal was statistically significant.  When DS were added to this model, the proportion of PHS variance explained by the model significantly increased to 43.6%, F [6, 91] = 13.482, p <.001. Hyperarousal and DS were the only significant variables in this model, which accounted for 27.6 % and 47.9% of the variance, respectively (see Table 2).
According to bootstrap analyses (Table 3), both the direct effect of hyperarousal on PHS and its indirect effect through DS were statistically significant, DE = 33.38; SE = 6.38; t = 2.13; p < .05. Regarding re-experience, its indirect effect through DS was statistically significant but not its direct effect, DE = 10.28; SE =5.49; t = 1.78; p = .078. Similarly, the indirect effect of avoidance/numbing on PHS through DS was significant, but not its direct effect, DE = 1.74; SE = 6.48; t = 0.27; p = .789.
Relationship between PTSS and pain symptoms
	The first regression model including age and sex as independent variables was not significant, F [2, 95] = 1.68, p =.193. A second model adding the PTSS clusters was statistically significant, F [2, 92] = 6.48, p <.001, and accounted for 22% of the pain symptoms variance. Only hyperarousal significantly contributed to the model. Including DS significantly improved the model, Change F [1, 91] = 11.34, p = <.01, which now accounted for the 30% of the pain symptoms variance, F [2, 91] = 7.89, p <.001. Only DS (and no longer hyperarousal) significantly contributed to this model (see Table 4).
Hyperarousal was not directly but indirectly related to pain symptoms via DS, DE = 2.08; SE = 1.13; t = 1.84; p = .069 (see Table 3).  Reexperiencing was shown to be directly, DE = 2.38; SE = 1.17; t = 2.03; p <.05, and indirectly related with pain symptoms through DS. According to our previous analyses, reexperiencing was not uniquely related with pain symptoms when the other PTSS clusters were concurrently considered, thus we decided to repeat these mediational analyses controlling for hyperarousal symptoms.  The direct effect of re-experience became non-significant when hyperarousal symptoms were controlled for. In the light of these results hyperarousal might partially mediate the effect of re-experience. We conducted a bootstrap analyses considering both DS and hyperarousal as mediators. The results of these analyses showed that only DS and not hyperarousal mediated the effect of reexperiencing on pain symptoms (the indirect effect of hyperarousal was .92, SE = .92, CI [-.88, 2.84]). Avoidance/numbing was not directly related with pain symptoms, DE = .43; SE = 1.32; t = .32; p = .747. However, it was indirectly related to pain symptoms via DS. 
Relationship between PTSS and CP
The results of the hierarchical logistic regression analyses are shown in Table 5.  The first model including age and sex was not statistically significant, �2 [2, N =98] = 2.35; p = .309. The second model including the PTSS clusters was statistically significant, �2 [5, N =98] = 13.74; p <.01. Only hyperarousal significantly contributed to the model predicting CP (see Table 5).  The third model, in which DS were included was also statistically significant, �2 [6, N =98] = 16.09; p <.01. Nonetheless, introducing DS did not significantly improve the model. Again, only hyperarousal significantly contributed to the model.   
According to bootstrap analyses, the direct effect of hyperarousal on presence of CP was statistically significant (DE = 1.18, SE: 0.40, p < .01, Wald = 8.67), but not its indirect effect (see Table 3). Reexperiencing was not directly or indirectly (via DS) related to presence of CP, DE = 0.53, SE: 0.38, p = .159, Wald = 1.98.  Finally, the direct effect of avoidance/numbing was statistically significant (DE= 1.04, SE: 0.45, p <.05, Wald = 5.29), but not its indirect effect via DS. As according to our previous analyses, avoidance/numbing was not uniquely related with presence of CP when the other PTSD symptoms clusters were concurrently considered, we decided to repeat these mediational analyses controlling for hyperarousal symptoms.  When controlling for hyperarousal, the direct effect of avoidance-numbing was not statistically significant.  In the light of these results, hyperarousal might partially mediate the effect of avoidance. We conducted bootstrap analyses considering hyperarousal as a mediator. The results of these analyses showed that only DS and not hyperarousal mediated the effect of avoidance on the presence of CP (the indirect effect via hyperarousal was .67, SE = .43, [-.12, 1.38]). 
Discussion
This research was aimed to examine the associations of each PTSS cluster (i.e., reexperiencing, avoidance/numbing, and hyperarousal) and DS with: (1) PHS, (2) pain symptoms, (3) and presence of CP among trauma-exposed individuals. Furthermore, we examined the mediational role of DS in the relationships between each of the PTSD clusters and the three dependent variables.  
Both hyperarousal and DS were uniquely related with PHS. These results on a civilian sample are similar to those recently found by Quartana et al. [2] in U.S. soldiers. Hyperarousal was the only PTSD symptom cluster accounting for unique PHS variance, being directly and indirectly related to this variable through DS. DS showed a stronger relationship with PHS than hyperarousal (uniquely explaining 11.2% vs 3% of the variance). These results highlight the importance of treating DS in trauma-exposed individuals with and without PTSD, in order to prevent severe physical health problems. 
In line with the statement that depression may affect physical health both as a reaction to trauma and as a consequence of PTSD [11], DS not only were independently related to PHS but also mediated the relationship between each PTSD symptom cluster and PHS.  This is coherent with the results reported by Asmundson et al. [5], who found both a direct and an indirect effect of PTSS (through depression) on male veterans�s general health status. In addition, our study extends the findings of previous studies conducted with treatment-seeking female sexual assault victims [3] and female war veterans [4] regarding the unique contribution of DS [3] and hyperarousal [3, 4, 5, 30] on physical health by observing these effects in a German heterogeneous sample of trauma-exposed individuals. Our and previous findings thus suggest that, independent of the type of traumatic experience, hyperarousal and comorbid DS are the mechanism linking PTSD and physical health.  
The important role hyperarousal plays in relation to PHS might have several explanations.  First, the persistent over-activation of the stress system over time and the subsequent strain on bodily functions may produce changes in the body (e.g. immune system alterations) that, depending on a persons� vulnerability, could contribute to the development of different types of health problems.  Second, hyperarousal might motivate individuals to engage in negative health behaviors (e.g., using drugs) contributing so to health status impairment [1]. Studies investigating the association between hyperarousal and negative health behaviors as well as the role of hyperarousal in the epigenetic changes [31] and neuroimmunoendocrine alterations reported in PTSD individuals [32] are desirable.
Our findings did not support the unique relationship between avoidance and PHS reported by Woods et al. [8].  Their study was conducted with victims of intimate partner violence, a long lasting type of trauma which may imply current real risk for one�s life, what may have explained these discrepancies.  Further research is needed to clarify if the mechanisms relating PTSD and health are the same in chronic traumatization and single Type-I-trauma.  Similarly, the unique relationship between reexperiencing and PHS reported by Zoellner et al. [7] was not supported.  The fact that in their study only individuals with a PTSD diagnoses were considered, whereas both trauma-exposed individuals with and without PTSD were included in the present investigation, may explain this inconsistence. 
Hyperarousal was not only directly related to PHS but also with the presence of CP. This is congruent with L�pez-Mart�nez et al. [16] who found that hyperarousal was related with pain outcomes among patients with CP; as well as with the results of Cyders et al. [17] who found that hyperarousal was associated with pain severity among patients with orofacial CP. Nonetheless, the relationship between hyperarousal and pain symptoms was completely mediated by DS, suggesting that the pathway linking hyperarousal and presence of CP is not the same as the one linking hyperarousal and pain symptoms in general. DS did not uniquely relate to the presence CP nor mediated the relationship between the PTSD symptoms clusters and the presence of CP; however it was uniquely related to pain symptoms and mediated the relationship between each of the PTSS clusters and pain symptoms. These findings partially match previous results found in a sample of patients with CP resulting from traumatic injury [19], in that DS, but not PTSD symptoms, were directly related to pain severity.  In addition, they agree with the results reported by Poundja et al.[18], who observed depression fully mediated the relationship between PTSD symptoms and a measure of current pain, in a sample of male veterans seeking treatment for deployment-related PTSD.  The pathways leading to CP may not be the same one as the pathway leading to other pain complaints. In the case of CP, hyperarousal (and not DS) seems to be the key symptom; whereas in the case of pain symptoms in general DS seems to have a more important role than hyperarousal.
Finally, our results consistent with findings indicating that each PTSS clusters is related with a different health outcome [10], providing with discriminant validity for them. It is also worth mentioning that in DSM-5, a new symptom cluster characterized by negative mood and cognitions is included [33]. In our study, this new PTSS cluster may have overlapped with DS, and DS may therefore indeed be part of the PTSD syndrome itself. This new symptom cluster (together with hyperarousal and DS) may be related with PHS. For research assessing the relationship between the different PTSS clusters and physical health, instruments for the PTSD assessment adjusted to the changes that occurred in the DSM-5 are indeed needed.  
Our findings must be interpreted in the light of some limitations.  First, we used self-report measures of PHS and pain symptoms which could themselves have been affected by depression. Moreover, the scale we employed to measure PHS includes some items which assess various somatic reactions in aroused states [25]. This may raises the question whether we might have found lower correlations between DS (and hyperarousal symptoms) and PHS if we had instead used a scale excluding this type of symptoms (e.g., the PHQ-15). However, in support of our results, in a previous study using the PHQ-15 [30] a relationship among hyperarousal, DS, and PHS was also found, suggesting the items assessing somatic reactions in aroused states where not solely responsible for our findings. Future studies incorporating multiple measures of health and pain symptoms, as well as more objective medical examinations, are needed.  Third, we used a cross-sectional design and consequently a causal relationship cannot be established. Therefore, our findings should be considered as preliminary, as proper mediation can only be tested with longitudinal designs. This raises the need for longitudinal studies. In fact, in some cases depression or pain diagnoses may have preceded PTSD diagnoses and this could have affected our results. We cannot determine this because data about the onset of each disorder were not collected. Fourth, participants with a current or past alcohol or drug dependence or psychotic disorder were excluded from the study and, therefore, our results are limited to those individuals with PTSD without these disorders. Fifth, the sample size considered was small. Finally, the data included individuals with and without PTSD, with and without depression, and with and without CP, as well as individuals that may have had two or more comorbid diagnoses. The mechanisms leading to poorer health may not be exactly the same in all these groups of individuals, in fact the type of sample may be explaining why conflicting results have been found in this regard. The symptoms of the different disorders may interact leading to differential outcomes. Research analyzing these issues in separate samples with different combinations of diagnoses is needed. In addition, it may be possible that physical and mental health symptoms do not interact in the same way among trauma-exposed individuals with PTSD and those without PTSD. Nonetheless, the existing research either combines both types of samples or analyses these issues only in PTSD individuals. Studies in which the results of both samples are compared may be helpful to understand the interaction between physical and mental health. 
Despite these limitations, our study added to the literature by examining the mediational role of DS in the particular relationship between each PTSS cluster and PHS. Furthermore, our study is novel in investigating the relationship between each PTSD cluster and a CP diagnosis while considering the role of DS.  Moreover, it overcame some of the limitations of preceding investigations studying the relationship between PSTD and health.  First, we assessed a heterogeneous sample of both men and women who have experienced different kinds of traumatic events, allowing a better generalization of results.  Second, by conducting bootstrap analyses instead of the more commonly used and often criticized Baron and Kenny�s procedure [34], we overcame the significant criticism made in regards to existing mediational studies in this field [29].  
Acknowledgement: The present research was not supported by the National Institutes of Health; Wellcome Trust, or Howard Hughes Medical Institute. Part of the research was conducted when the first author was supported by a predoctoral fellowship from the Spanish Ministry of Education and Innovation (FPU, AP2005-1629. 2007�2010 National Scientific Research, Technologic Development, and Innovation). This work has been also supported by the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft (grant SFB636/C1 to H.F. and WE3638/2-1 to M.W). 


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Table 1
Means, standard deviation and Pearson correlations for age, depressive symptoms, PTSD symptoms clusters, physical health symptoms, and pain symptoms
NM SD12345671. Age9841.88 13.52--2. Depressive symptoms9817.00 11.41.17--3. Reexperiencing981.400.96**.29***.58--4. Avoidance/numbing981.080.85.14***.67***.64_5. Hyperarousal981.39 0.96*.23***.64***.70***.69--6. Physical health   symptoms98183.34 52.10**.27***.61**.49***.41***.56--7. Pain symptoms9822.159.70.18***.52***.45***.36***.46***.82--











Note:  * p <.05, ** p < .01, *** p < .001.Table 2
Hierarchical regression predicting physical health symptoms considering the PTSD symptoms clusters and depressive symptoms as predictors, and controlling for age and sex (N = 98)
VariablesAdjusted R2Change R2�Square Partial CorrelationsStep 1*.054Age**.28 .07Sex
(reference category women)-.03 .00Step 2***.32***.29Age.15.02Sex-.12.01Re-experiencing.17.01Avoidance/numbing.03.00Hyperarousal**.41.07Step3***.44***.11Age.15.02Sex-.14.02Re-experiencing.10.00Avoidance/numbing-.14.01Hyperarousal*.28.03Depressive symptoms***.48 .11Note:  * p <.05, ** p < .01, *** p < .001.Table 3
Indirect effect (IE) of reexperience, avoidance/numbing, and hyperarousal o through depressive symptoms on PHS, pain symptoms, and presence of CP (bootstrap analyses; N = 98)
IESEBCa 95% CIVD: PHSReexperiencing16.984.57[9.27, 27.08]Avoidance/numbing23.046.49[10.51, 34.88]Hyperarousal19.794.65[10.97, 29.18]VD: pain symptomsReexperience2.55.75[1.26, 4.21]Avoidance/numbing3.691.06[1.82, 5.88]Hyperarousal2.53.77[1.11, 4.10]VD: Presence of CPReexperience0.130.28[-0.44, 0.65]Avoidance/numbing0.050.40[-0.90, 0.69]Hyperarousal-0.080.32[-0.77, 0.52]Notes: BCa- Bias corrected and acelerated; 5,000 bootstrap samples. Abreviations: VD = Dependent varaible; PHS = Physical Health Symptoms; CP = Chronic pain.Table 4
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la�p�(��������yt�	=���P�d�|���������������$d�$Ifa$gd�	=d�$Ifgd�	=d�gdG�gd|^�Hierarchical regression predicting pain symptoms considering the PTSD symptoms clusters and depressive symptoms as predictors, and controlling for age and sex (N = 98)
VariablesAdjusted R2Change R2�Square Partial CorrelationsStep 1.034Age.19 .000Sex
(reference category women)-.05 .000Step 2**.14***.18Age-.15.020Sex-.06.004Re-experiencing.17.015Avoidance/numbing.02.000Hyperarousal*.31.046Step3***.21**.07Age-.15.027Sex-.08.007Re-experiencing.11.007Avoidance/numbing-.12.009Hyperarousal.20.021Depressive symptoms**.38 .046Note:  * p <.05, ** p < .01, *** p < .001. 
Table 5
Hierarchical logistic regression predicting chronic pain, considering PTSD symptom clusters and depressive symptoms as predictors, and controlling for age and sex
VariablesBSEWaldOR95.0% CI for ORStep 1Age0.030.021.891.03[0.99, 1.07]Sex
(reference category women)0.520.600.761.568[0.52, 5.41]Step2 Age0.030.031.251.03[0.98, 1.08]Sex0.900.651.922.46[0.69, 9.82]Reexperiencing-0.300.450.450.74[0.31, 1.78]Avoidance0.570.491.391.77[0.69, 4.58]Hyperarousal1.030.46*4.932.79[1.13, 6.89]Step 3Age0.280.031.161.03[0.98, 1.08]Sex0.870.661.772.40[0.66, 8.67]Reexperiencing-0.290.450.410.75[0.31, 1.82]Avoidance1.100.531.802.03[0.72, 5.73]Hyperarousal0.250.48*5.303.01[1.18, 7.71]Depressive symptoms-0.030.040.530.98[0.91, 1.04]Note:  * p <.05











PAGE   \* MERGEFORMAT20
POSTTRAUMATIC STRESS, PHYSICAL HEALTH AND CHRONIC PAIN


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