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��ࡱ�>��	�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������[�	��ھbjbj����	4�ΐΐ{�+�������~~������������8
)��<��L	1%G%G%G%�`�`�`��������������$D���\���`�_��`�`�`���G%G%x:��g�g�g��`d!�G%�G%��g��`��g�g�V��@w�G%�����$����������0<���xB�+�<B�w�w��
B��+���`�`g��`�`�`�`�`��g��`�`�`<��`�`�`�`��������������������������������������������������������������������B��`�`�`�`�`�`�`�`�`~	�:	Review on Role of Pigeon Pea (Cajanus cajan L.) in Human Nutrition and Health
T. Aruna1 & S. Devindra 1
1 Department of Dietetics Division, National Institute of Nutrition (ICMR), 
Hyderabad, Telangana, India.









Correspondence
S. Devindra
Department of Dietetics Division, 
National Institute of Nutrition (ICMR),
Jamaia-Osmania Post Tarnaka, 
Hyderabad,-500007,
Telangana, India.
TEL: +91-40 27197265 
FAX: +91-40 27019074
E-mail: dr_devindra@rediffmail.com		




Abstract: Legumes and cereals are good, and relatively inexpensive, sources of proteins and energy for third world countries, including India. India is a major pulse producing country, sharing 36 and 28% of total area and production of these crops. Pigeon pea (Cajanus cajan L.) is widely consumed in the form of dhal as an economical source of protein. It is a dense source of nutrients, but its nutritional elements are masked by some anti-nutritional factors which are decreased by different processing methods. The non-nutritive compounds of pigeon pea have been investigated for their role in the enhancement of the antioxidant and anti carcinogenic effects. Recent evidences suggest that pigeon pea bioactive compounds play a vital role in modulating the gut micribiota hence, can reduce inflammation. The Prebiotic potential of non digestible raffinose family oligosaccharides has also been investigated in animal models. Research on pigeon pea prebiotic oligosaccharide and health benefits is scanty and some research regarding this novel approach remains inconclusive and there is still much to be studied. This review article focuses on the nutritional, anti nutritional factors bioactive compounds and other health benefits of pigeon pea.
 
Keywords: Pigeon pea, Anti-nutrients, Oligosaccharides, Prebiotics











Abbreviations
IYP		International year of pulses
RFO		Raffinose family oligosaccharides
PUFA		Poly unsaturated fatty acids
RDI		Recommended daily intake 
HDL		High density lipoprotein
LDL		Low density lipoprotein
NHANES	National health and nutrition examination survey
LPO		Lipid peroxidation
CSA		Cajaninstillbene acid
TNF  �	Tumor necrosis factor alpha
IL- 1�		Interleukin 1 beta
SCD		Sickle cell disease
AIN		American Institute of Nutrition
LPO		Lipid Peroxidation








Introduction
Food legumes are of major importance in the human diet contributing the major source of vegetable protein. Nowadays, pulses are gaining much interest in the area of functional foods. The 68th UN General Assembly announced 2016 as the International Year of Pulses (IYP). The IYP 2016 aims at public awareness of the nutritional benefits of pulses and towards the food security and nutrition (International year of pulses 2016). 
	India ranks high in the production of pulses. Pigeon pea, Chickpea, Black gram, Green gram, lentils and Peas are major pulses consumed. Among legumes, Pigeon pea is predominantly grown and consumed in India. It is also known as red gram, arhar, tur dal which belongs to the family of Leguminosae. Pigeon pea was long considered to be one of the two species of the genus Cajanus DC. The cultivation of the pigeon pea goes back at least 3,500 years and assumed that eastern part of peninsular India is the center of origin (Van der Maeson 1995). 
	Pigeon pea is accepted in many parts of the world because of the reason that it is very much resistant to drought (ICRISAT). Pigeon pea seeds compliment cereals such as corn, maize, wheat and rice. It forms a good portion of the human diet in many African, Asian and South American countries as well. Pigeon pea is the economical source of protein, carbohydrate, minerals and vitamins such as B-complex particularly in the vegetarian diet. Along with the cereals pigeon pea provide well balanced diet and can comparable to other dense protein sources like whey and soy (Akporhonor et al. 2006). 
	Besides its nutritional value, pigeon pea also possesses various medicinal properties due to the presence of a number of polyphenols and flavonoids (Singh 2016). The nutritional components of pigeon pea are considered crucial for human nutrition, and it is evident from several studies that consumption of pigeon pea is associated with a lower risk of several diseases (Singh and Basu 2012).
	In India, red gram is mostly consumed in the form of dhal (decorticated split cotyledons), after cooking in water, to the desirable degree of softness and immature green seeds are used as vegetable. Nowadays pigeon pea is incorporated into food products like biscuits, noodles, pasta, sausages as a novel ingredient for nutritional purposes, because of its high fibre and protein content, gluten-free status, low glycemic index, antioxidant levels, as well as functional properties like fat absorption and water binding capacity (Keshav 2014).
	Till date several authors have reviewed the nutritional quality and health benefits of pigeon pea in relation to its bioactive compounds.  This narrative review article aimed at reviewing the recent advances in research carried out till date for the purposes of evaluation of nutritional quality and health benefits of newly cultivated pigeon pea including its novel prebiotic potential.  Moreover, we summarized updated findings on the effect of pigeon pea consumption in animals and human health. 
Nutritional composition of Pigeon pea	
Proximate composition
The proximate compositions such as moisture, protein, fat, carbohydrate, ash and dietary fiber of pigeon pea is shown in Table 1 (Oke 2014., Eltayeb et al. 2010., Olalekan and Bosede 2010., Adamu and Oyetunde 2013., Kunyanga et al. 2013). The pigeon pea seed is made up of 85% cotyledon, 14% seed coat, and about 1% embryo and it is a rich source of protein, carbohydrates, minerals and vitamins. It�s protein content ranges between 20-22% CHO between 51.4 � 58.8%, Crude fibre between 1.2 � 8.1% and lipid between 0.6 � 3.8%  (Faris 1990).
Carbohydrates
The starch and non-starch are the major constituents of carbohydrates of pigeon pea consisting of significant amount of �-galactosides. Different carbohydrate fractions of pigeon pea are (i) available carbohydrates which are digested in the small intestine and (ii) unavailable carbohydrates like oligosaccharides, resistant starch, non-cellulosic polysaccharides, pectins, hemicelluloses, and cellulose, which are not digested in the small intestine (Cunnings 2007). 
The available and unavailable carbohydrate content of pigeon pea is summarized in Table 2 (Jairo et al. 1991., Mulimani and Devindra 1998., Apata 2008., Devindra et al. 2012). The unavailable carbohydrates of pigeon pea like fructans and raffinose family oligosaccharides (RFOs) are the major water soluble carbohydrates which adversely affect bioavailability of certain vital nutrients. 
Glycemic Carbohydrate
Carbohydrates which provide glucose for metabolism is referred to as �glycaemic carbohydrate�, whereas carbohydrates that reaches the large intestine prior to being metabolized, are called as �non-glycaemic carbohydrate�. Most of the available carbohydrates, some oligosaccharides and rapidly digested starches may be classified as a glycaemic carbohydrate (Cunnings 2007).  
	In a study cooked legumes including pigeon pea, chickpea, black gram, mung bean and white bean were tested for blood glucose response among healthy human subjects. The glycemic response to pigeon pea was 30.99 (Panlasigui 2009).  Recently Devindra et al. (2016) have reported that the glycemic index/load of cereals, pulses and mixture of cereals and pulses which are commonly consumed in India. The results of the study indicated that pigeon have shown lowest glycemic index and loads, hence could be safely used in the diet of diabetic patients. 
Amino acid profile
Generally the sulphur containing amino acids (methionine and cystine) are limiting in pulses. The amino acid profile of pigeon peas is summarized in Table 3 (Nwokolo 1987., Akande et al. 2010., Ade-Omowaye et al. 2015., Longvah et al. 2017). Pigeon pea seeds contain high amounts of lysine, leucine, aspartic acid, glutamic acid and arginine and provide essential amino acids when consumed with cereals and other sulphur containing amino acids (Ade-Omowaye et al. 2015).. In a study Pigeon pea can replace soybean without adversely affecting the performance of rabbits (Adamu and Oyetunde 2013). 
Fatty Acid Profile
The major saturated fatty acid in pigeon pea is the palmitic acid which constitutes 15-25% in the neutral lipids, 20-40% in the glycolipids, and 26-30% in the phospholipids. The fatty acid profile of pigeon pea is summarized in Table 4. A study was conducted to know the nutritional potential of nine underexploited legumes in Southwest Nigeria. The most abundant polyunsaturated fatty acid (PUFA) identified in pigeon pea was linoleic acid (C18:2) (Ade-Omowaye et al., 2015).
	Caprylic, lauric, oleic and eicosanoic acids were present only in small quantities. The resistant starch derived from processed red gram showed a higher amount of short chain fatty acids. Whereas Indian food composition tables reported the palmitic acid content of pigeon pea as 236 � 11.0; oleic acid was 78.55� 6.71, stearic acid was 40.95� 3.31 mg/100g respectively (Longvah et a. 2017).
Vitamin and Mineral content 
Pigeon pea is a good source of water soluble vitamins, like thiamine, riboflavin, niacin etc. Vitamin content of pigeon pea is summarized in Table 5. Pigeon pea was reported to be the richest vegetable for Vitamin C with 569 mg/100g. Its content was three times higher than for peppers and could cover more than 949% of the recommended daily intake (RDI) of Vitamin C and pigeon pea was found to have high carotenoid content with 364.3 �g/100g when compared to other pulses (Ellong et al., 2015). Whereas Indian food composition tables reported the thiamin content of pigeon pea as 0.74 , riboflavin 0.15, niacin, pantothenic acid 1.56, total B6 0.42,biotin 0.65, total folates 229 mg/ 100g respectively (Longvah et al., 2017).There are limited studies on the lutein and zeaxanthin levels in pigeon pea.
	Pigeon pea is a good source of minerals such as phosphorus, magnesium, iron, calcium, sulphur and potassium but low in sodium (Kunyanga et al. 2013). Mineral content of pigeon pea is summarized in Table 6. Sangle, 2015 have reported minerals constituents of 2 viable mutant varieties of pigeon pea. Mean content of nitrogen ranged from 1.95%- 3.33% and 2.24% - 3.17%, calcium content ranged from 0.25% - 0.37% and 0.26% - 0.51% and phosphorus content of viable mutants ranged from 0.56 % - 0.72 % and 0.58% - 0.80% in varieties of pigeon pea respectively (Sangle, 2015).Whereas Indian food composition tables reported the calcium content of pigeon pea as 1.39, copper 1.32, iron 5.37 mg/100g respectively (Longvah et al. 2017).  
Anti-Nutritional Factors 
Like other legume seeds Pigeon pea seeds also contain some anti-nutritional factors including phytolectins, polyphenols (phenols and tannins), and enzyme inhibitors (trypsin, chymotrypsin, and amylase). Different anti-nutritional factors of pigeon pea are summarized in Table 7 (Harris et al. 2014.,  Nwaogu and Emejulu 2010., Nwosu et al. 201., Balogun 2013., Aja et al. 2015a). These anti-nutritional factors can be reduced by different processing methods like chemical soaking (Devindra and Aruna 2016). Germination was found to be the best method for decreasing the phytic acid content of pigeon pea. Application of gamma irradiation can be used as an effective method of preservation of pigeon pea flour and their products (Bamidele and Akanbi 2013).
	Phenolics such as pcoumaric acid or vanillic acid were also detected in pigeon pea. The phytochemical analysis of leaf seed and stem extracts of pigeon pea showed the presence of saponins, tannins, alkaloids flavonoids, anthraquinones and reducing sugars (Harris et al. 2014), but, cardiac glycosides and terpenoids were absent in some of the components of pigeon pea.	Pigeon pea is a good source of alkaloids (Aja et al. 2015). The results also revealed that anthocyanins were found to be present in the leaf and seed of pigeon pea, and the leaves contain more of the bioactive compounds than the seeds suggesting the use of different parts of pigeon pea plant on various diseases (Ade-Omowaye et al. 2015).
Health Benefits
The nutritional components of pigeon pea are widely considered crucial for human nutrition, because of phytochemicals, bioactive compounds which play vital roles in humans. Traditionally Cajanus cajan leaves have been used by Rabha tribe to cure Jaundice and also described as useful for the treatment of smallpox, chicken pox, measles and used as astringent, mouthwash by local people of North East India (Sarma et al. 2015).
	Pigeon pea can be a source of remedy in the control of sickle cell anaemia. In India, many Sickle cell disease (SCD) patients are using pigeon pea for effective management of erythrocytes sickling in Chhattisgarh (Verma 2015). In an ethnomedical survey pigeon pea plant was recorded as traditional medicinal plant used in Northern and South-Eastern C�te d'Ivoire for the treatment of anaemia (Kone 2011). Pigeon pea also has anti-ulcer potential (Mansoor  2015).
	The European Society of Hypertension recommends diet and lifestyle approaches as a basis for prevention and treatment of hypertension. In an animal model, found that both water extracts of pigeon pea and water extracts of B. subtilis fermented pigeon pea improved systolic blood pressure and diastolic blood pressure in spontaneously hypertensive rats (Lee et al. 2015).
Use as functional foods
A study was conducted to investigate the survival of Lactobacillus reuteri ATCC 55730 in creams, prepared with pigeon peas and oat.  The study concluded that L. reuteri ATCC 55730 had the highest viability in cream with 40% pigeon pea and 20% oat (Barboza et al. 2012). The effect of the use of pigeon pea as a substrate in the production of a legume-based fermented product with Lactobacillus acidophilus ATCC 314 or Lactobacillus casei ATCC 393 was studied by Parra et al. Pigeon pea-based fermented probiotic product was suitable for both the strains (Parra et al. 2013).
	 In a study, the effects of a dietary prebiotic, inulin and probiotic was investigated in mice using cellulose-based AIN-93G diets under conditions allowed for the growth of commensal bacteria (Kuo et al. 2013).
Prebiotic potential
A prebiotic is defined as a selectively fermented ingredient that allows specific changes, both in the composition and/or activity in the gastrointestinal microflora that confers benefits upon host well-being and health (Roberfroid L et al. 2010). Fermentation of dietary carbohydrates provides the energy for the growth and activity of the intestinal microbiota. 
	Several studies established the role of prebiotics in weight control, by improving microbial balance, ameliorating adiposity and increasing mucosal integrity with decreased inflammation (John et al. 2012). A number of mechanisms have been implicated in the link between intestinal microbiota, increased fatty acid metabolism, and storage of calories as fat (Mallappa  et al. 2012). The prebiotics can be a tool to modulate gut microbiota which plays a role in the pathophysiology of obesity.
	A diet rich in non-digestible carbohydrates induced significant weight loss and concomitant structural changes of the gut microbiota in simple obese children (Zhang et al. 2015). In another study consumption of prebiotics for 16 weeks significantly improved bifidobacterial abundance in overweight and obese children and proved that prebiotic fiber is a potential treatment option to reduce body fat by gut microbiota modulation (Nicolucci et al. 2015).
	Recently Devindra et al. (2017) have demonstrated that the prebiotic potential of red gram raffinose oligosaccharides in an animal model. The results of the prebiotic potential of red gram oligosaccharides have shown a hypolipidemic effect and lowered blood glucose level, improved HDL and decreased LDL. This new array of research may provide enough evidence for the prebiotic potential of pigeon pea. 
Antioxidant Potential
The bioactive compounds of pigeon pea seeds contain some defense machinery. Four important compounds, pinostrobin, cajaninstilbene acid (CSA), vitexin and orientin isolated from ethanolic extracts of pigeon pea found to possess significant antioxidant activities (Pal  et al. 2011). 
	Antioxidant potential of pigeon pea seed husk was investigated and results revealed a potent anti-oxidant activity (Rani et al. 2014). The aqueous extract of the pigeon pea were possess highest antioxidant activity possibly because of the presence of polyphenols (Mahitha et al. 2015). Uchegbu and Ishiwu studied antioxidant activity of extract of germinated pigeon pea in alloxan-induced diabetic rats. Consumption of germinated pigeon pea extract resulted in reduction of fasting blood glucose level and LPO in diabetic rats (Uchegbu and Ishiwu 2015).
Hypocholesterolemic effect
The consumption of pulses and legumes has been reported to ameliorate serum cholesterol levels and increase the saturation levels of cholesterol in the bile. Pigeon pea is a good source of saponins which have been implicated for the control of high cholesterol level and they bind to the bile salts (Aja et al. 2015). 
Overweight and obesity
The diet high in whole grains is associated with the lower body mass index, smaller waist circumference, and reduced risk of overweight and obesity (Butt et al. 2011). Pigeon pea has high protein content and this dietary protein may promote weight loss by inducing satiety hence decrease energy expenditure. Using data from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES), it was observed that adults who consumed a variety of legumes had significantly lower body weights compared with those who did not consume legumes (Polak 2015).
Role in Diabetes (Hypoglycemia)
It is acknowledged that certain fibre rich foods like whole pulses can affect glycemic control in diabetes and hyperlipidemia. Pigeon pea is the most effective hypoglycemic medicinal plant commonly studied in relation to diabetes and their complications and has shown varying the degree of hypoglycemic activity. In a study substitution of red meat with legumes improved lipid profiles and glycemic control among diabetes patients (Hosseinpour-Niazi 2015).
	In another study, there was a reduction in glucose levels of rats treated with ethanol extract of pigeon pea leaves and an increase in ALT, AST and ALP levels when compared with those treated with Moringaoleifera extract (Aja et al. 2015b). In a study, crude methanol extract of pigeon pea seed husks mitigated starch-induced postprandial glycemic excursions and reduced glycemic load in rats similar to the standard drug acarbose (Tiwari et al. 2013). The hypoglycemic effect of crackers produced from sprouted pigeon pea caused hypoglycemic effect in diabetic rats and led to a reduction of measured biochemical indices (Uchegbu 2016). 
Cancer prevention
Alkaloids of pigeon pea have been implicated for inducing a stress response and apoptosis in human breast cancer cell. DNA fragmentation was observed in human breast cancer cells treated with cajanol, a novel anticancer agent from pigeon pea roots (Luo et al. 2010). The methanol extract of the plant has been shown to demonstrate cytotoxicity against three cancer cell lines, namely human breast adenocarcinoma cell line MCF-7, human large cell lung carcinoma cell line COR-L23 and human amelanotic melanoma C32  (Ashidi et al. 2010).
Anti-inflammatory
In another study, the ethanol extracts of pigeon pea and of cyanidin-3-monoglucoside suppressed the production of inflammatory cytokines, including TNF-�, IL-1�, and IL-6 (Lai et al., 2012) and pigeon pea leaves can be developed as an effective herbal remedy for the treatment and prevention of inflammation or associated ailments (Patel and Bhutani 2014).
In a recent study the pigeon pea extract inhibited carrageenan-induced inflammation by 85 and 95%, respectively. This was accompanied by a decrease of TNF-� and IL-6, as well as significant decrease in IgG serum levels (Hassan et al. 2015).
Antimicrobial effect
Pigeon pea plant extract is inhibitory to some bacterial pathogens (Braga et al. 2007). The leaf part of pigeon pea is an excellent source of natural antimicrobial substances. Moreover, cajanuslactone is a potential anti-bacterial agent against Gram-positive microorganisms (Kong et al. 2010). The presence of tannins, flavonoids, and alkaloids in pigeon pea extract has clinically relevant antifungal activity (Brito et al. 2012). 
	A study investigated the protective effect of cajaninstilbene acid against corticosterone induced injury in PC12 cells and examined the potential mechanisms for the same (Jiang t al. 2014). Different extracts of leaf, seed and root of the pigeon pea were proven to be a great potential source of antibacterial compounds (Devi et al. 2016) and also aid in wound healing activity. In a study, wound healing activity of hydrogel obtained from pigeon pea seed husk was carried out in albino rats. Gel formulation showed significant antibacterial activity against both gram positive and gram negative selected bacteria and the percentage wound closer and epithelialization for the gel formulation treated group was comparable with those of standard group treated with Band aid (Patil  and Mastiholimath 2011).
Hepatoprotective 
Pigeon pea is already known for its hepatoprotective function. Pigeon pea plant protein extracts can up-regulate and counteract the inflammatory process, minimize the damage to the liver, delay disease progression, and reduce its complications in liver (Rizk et al. 2014) and kidneys (Aly et al. 2016). The pigeon pea extract was potential towards antioxidative protection against iron-overload-induced liver damage in mice and improved hepatic antioxidants (Sarkar et al. 2013).
 	Pigeon pea plant extract also had promising anthelmintic effects against F. hepatica (Alvarez  et al. 2015) and a poly herbal formulation from pigeon pea could protect the liver cells from CCl4 - induced liver damages (Arka et al. 2015). 
In another study hepatoprotective activity of pigeon pea was studied in sodium fluoride treated Swiss albino (BALB/C) mice. Treatment with extract of pigeon pea exhibited significant anti-oxidant and hepatoprotective activity (Kayathri  et al. 2015). 
Conclusions
Pigeon pea is among the essential pulse in arid and semiarid tropical areas of the world. It is a dense source of nutrients and plays a promising role in human nutrition. Pigeon pea in view of their nutrient profile seems to be ideal for inclusion in designing snack foods, baby, and sports foods. Various parts of pigeon pea have already been utilized for therapeutic use since ages. 
	From this review we found that pigeon pea is a good source of antioxidants and can prevent the oxidative stress related disorders like cancer and cardio vascular diseases. Consumption of pigeon pea has several health benefits due to the presence of bioactive compounds and helps in the weight management, alleviating cholesterolemia and diabetes hence can be a remedy to metabolic syndrome as well.
	The hepatoprotective potential of pigeon pea is promising since it has a vital role in the control of liver damage.  The past decade has seen several new trends in the field of application of pigeon pea in neutraceutical industry. Pigeon pea can also be an alternative to artificial nutrition formulas which induce a low grade inflammation. Hopefully, research will soon offer enough data to show the efficacy of pigeon pea in gut health by possible biochemical alterations.
	The further research is in need to understand the role of pigeon pea prebiotics to prevent or control diabetes, obesity, cardiovascular diseases, irritable bowel syndrome and other health benefits and understanding the underlying mechanisms could greatly contribute to disease prevention strategies in humans.
Acknowledgments 
We thank Dr. R. Hemalatha, Head of the Microbiology and Clinical Division, National Institute of Nutrition (ICMR) for editing the manuscript. 
Con�ict of interests, source of funding and
authorship
The authors declare that they have no con�icts of
interest.
Researchers contributing to this work were funded by
the Angela McAvoy AM Fellowship from Crohn s and
Colitis Australia, as well as by an Emerging Researcher
Fellowship from Monash Health.
DH, GM and BS formulated the questionnaires and
designed the study. DH performed the statistical analy-
ses and prepared the manuscript. BS and GM critically
revised the manuscript. All authors critically reviewed
the manuscript and approved the �nal version submit-
ted for publication.
Con�ict of interests, source of funding and
authorship
The authors declare that they have no con�icts of
interest.
Researchers contributing to this work were funded by
the Angela McAvoy AM Fellowship from Crohn�s and
Colitis Australia, as well as by an Emerging Researcher
Fellowship from Monash Health.
DH, GM and BS formulated the questionnaires and
designed the study. DH performed the statistical analy-
ses and prepared the manuscript. BS and GM critically
revised the manuscript. All authors critically reviewed
the manuscript and approved the �nal version submit-
ted for publication.








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Table1. Proximate composition of pigeon pea (g/100g)
S.No.	Proximate 		Oke		Eltayeb	Olalekan 	Adamu     Kunyunga							    	
1	Moisture 		11.20		  8.0	 	  8.45�0.95	    0.24	   11.27�0.04		
2	protein			22.40		21.0		24.46�0.32	  30.53	   17.95�0.06
3	fat			  2.74		  1.7		  4.78�0.22          3.68 	    2.77�0.57
4	Carbohydrate 		48.19		63.6		56.63�0.48	  50.08	   57.45�0.04
5	Fibre			  7.25		  2.5		  1.10�0.10	    5.54	    6.98�0.08
6	Ash			  8.22		  3.2		4.58�0.40	    9.93	    3.58�0.21

Table 2: Available and unavailable carbohydrate content of pigeon pea (g/100g)
			Jairo et al.,               Mulimani        	      Apata 	   	Devindra et al. 
							        
Available CHO
(Oligosaccharide)
Raffinose		     0.77		0.62		         0.5      		1.42�0.03	
Stachyose		     2.37		1.06		         2.90		1.75�0.04
Verbascose		     0.43		 4.00		          --- 		4.95�0.28
Reducing sugars	     ---		          	1.20		        0.52		0.91�0.01
Glucose		    0.14		   	  ---		          ---		     ---
Fructose		    0.40		    	 ---		          ---		     ---
Sucrose		    4.02		    	1.16		        2.01		2.32�0.07
Total soluble		     ---		   	 6.64		         ---		6.18�0.03
Unavailable CHO
Non-cellulosic		   ---		     ---		      	     14.00		  ---
Polysaccharides 
							
Cellulose		  ---		     ---		      	     9.84 		  ---
Lignin 		           	 ---		     ---		       	     3.40                          ---		




Table3.Amino acid profiles of pigeon pea
Amino acid 	         Akande et al.           Nwokolo   	               Kunyanga        Ade-	Omowaye 
			( g/16gN)              ( g/100g)	                   g/100g)	              ( g/kg)		

Lysine 			7.79			7.4			0.25			14.77
Histidine 		3.66 			5.0			0.66		 	 7.93
Arginine 		5.86 			6.9			1.11			13.51
Aspartic acid 	          11.56 			9.9			1.84			22.55			
Threonine 		3.12 			3.7			0.72			  8.25
Serine 			3.59			4.9			0.99			11.42
Glutamic acid 		9.23 		          19.7			3.14			43.31
Proline			3.17 			4.8			0.85			11.44
Glycine 		3.07			4.2			0.69			  7.85
Alanine 		3.79 			4.6			0.91		 	 9.72
Cystine		1.19 			0.8			0.24			 5.47
Valine			5.85 			4.4			1.09		  	8.67
Methionine		1.19 			1.1			0.23		 	 2.65		
Isoleucine		3.47			3.7			0.64		  	7.71
Leucine		6.78			7.8			1.38		          16.48
Tyrosine 		2.63 			2.9			0.47		  	5.52
Phenylalanine 		6.15 			8.9			1.69			22.19
Tryptophan 		ND 			---			0.15			----





Table 4. Fatty acid profile of pigeon pea (g/kg)
Name of		    Nwokolo        	       Kunyunga  	Ade�Omovaye             IFCT 
Fatty acid		     (g/100g)		           (g/100g)		(g/kg)	        mg/100g

Capric acid (10:0)		2.45			      ---			---		---
Lauric acid (12:0)	          18.56			      ---			---		---	
Myristic acid (14:0)	          23.73			      ---			0.30		---
Palmiticacid(16:0)	          10.98			26.2�0.00	          21.59	236.00�11.0
Stearic acid (18:00)		3.32			  4.0�0.01		5.88      40.95�3.31
Oleic acid (18:1)		8.44			  9.2�0.01	          10.21	 78.55�6.71
Linoleic acid (18:2)	          22.54			53.7�0.19	          49.69	       ---
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$d�a$gdh�$d�$dN��a$gdh��-Linolenic acid(18:3) 	---			  4.7�0.44		---	       ---
Arachidic acid			---			     ---		            1.26	       ---
Lignoceric acid		---			     ---			---	       ---
% TSFA			---			     ---		          32.63	       ---
%TUFA			---			     ---		          67.37	       ---
%MUFA			---			     ---		          10.61	       ---
%PUFA			---			     ---		          56.49	       ---
IFCT: Indian Food Composition Table 







Table 5. Vitamin content of pigeon pea (mg/100g)
Vitamins		               IFCT                    Faris et al.      	Kanyunga       	          Singh 
                                               (mg/100g)  	         (mg/g)		 (mg/g)                     (mg/g)
�-Carotene			---			--		0.05�0.03		0.6	
Thiamin (V-B1)		0.74�0.028		0.40		0.72�0.08		0.18
Riboflavin (V-B2)		0.15�0.015		0.17		0.14�0.33		2.9
Niacin				  2.42�0.18		2.20		2.90�0.10		 --
Ascorbic acid (V-C)		  ---			NA		4.80�0.00	             --
Pantothenic acid		1.56�0.13		0.68		    ---			1.26
Pyridoxine			  ---			0.07		    ---			0.28
Tocopherol (�+�)		  ---			0.39		    ---			  --
Folic acid (�g/100g)		  ---			173		100.00			456
Total folate			  229�19.0		---		   ---			---

*IFCT: Indian Food Composition Tables














Table 6. Mineral composition of pigeon pea
Minerals            IFCT                 Olaleken         	 Nwokolo 	              Kunyanga				 (mg/100g)	      (mg/g)	              (mg/kg)	         	  (mg/100g)	

Calcium	    1.39�11.8	     0.65�0.03		    1500                 	80.50�1.22
Magnesium	      ---		     1.55�0.01		    1410              	108.00�0.02
Copper		    1.32�0.15         0.56�0.03	                    18		---
Iron		    5.37�1.36         0.36�0.03	                    39	        	5.60�1.41
Zinc		    2.3		     1.54�0.10	                    24	         	2.70�0.00
Sodium	    ---		            ---		      ---		        	0.33�0.00
Phosphorous       ---                    55.00�0.20                 2450                334.00�0.00
Potassium           ---	                       ---                       12500                                ---

*IFCT: Indian Food Composition Tables























Table7. Anti-nutritional factors in pigeon pea (g/100g)

Constituents	           Nwaogu                 Nwosu          Balogun           Harris et al             Aja et al 		       (mg/100g)  	    (g/100g)        (mg/100g)	     (g/100g)	       (mg/100g)		

Alkaloids 		       ---		        0.323           ---	              2.65�0.0       385.54�75.15
Phenol 		       ---		        0.160	     ---                  3.82�0.15	          ---
Flavonoid 		       ---	                      ---              ---	              2.11�0.03	   31.08�8.20	
Saponin		  5.10�0.20	        0.466	   1.19	               6.35�0.96	     1.82�0.29	
Tannin			  0.10�0.01	        0.220	   1.05	               0.23�0.01	   17.30�0.47	
Hydrogen cyanide�             ---		        7.180**      0.65                    ---		            ---
Phytate			11.57�1.20	        1.017	    1.81	                   ---		            ---
Oxalate	           28.58�1.02            0.139	   0.14	                   ---		            ---
Trypsin inhibitor 	  3.80�0.10*            ---                  ---                   ---                        ---
Cyanogenic glycoside        ---                     ---                  ---                   ---                 12.42�1.84
Glycosides                         ---                     ---                  ---                   ---                   3.80�1.01
Anthocyanin 	                   ---                     ---                  ---                   ---                  4.75� 0.17

*TIU/100g , ** mg/100g











 PAGE   \* MERGEFORMAT 1




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