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Title of the manuscript
Socio-economic and ecological determinants of tree cover in African farmlands 
Names of the authors
Fatimata Niang-Diopa*, Steen N. Christensenb, Anders S. Barfodb, Bienvenu Samboua, Mamadou Diopa, Assane Goudiabya, Elie A. Padonouc,d, Anne Mette Lykkeb
The affiliations and addresses of the authors
aInstitute of Environmental Sciences, University of Cheikh Anta Diop, Dakar, Senegal
bDepartment of Bioscience, Aarhus University, Denmark
cSchool of Tropical Forestry, National University of Agriculture, Benin
dLaboratory of Applied Ecology, Faculty of Agronomic Sciences, University of Abomey-Calavi, Cotonou, Benin
* Corresponding Author:�Fatimata Niang-DiopE-mail: faniangdiop@live.fr









Abstract
Trees are rapidly disappearing from agrarian landscapes in many tropical countries, a severe problem to rural people, who depend on wood and non-timber forest products for their livelihoods. The aim of this study was to determine woody density, diversity, biomass and carbon stock in farmlands and to gain insight in the socio-economic and ecological determinants of the constitution of woody vegetation. A total of 235.5 ha were investigated in 15 sampling plots. In total, 25 tree species were recorded with an average density of 1.6 tree ha-1 and a canopy cover of 1%. The average above ground biomass (AGB) was 8.9 t ha-1 corresponding to 4.45 t carbon ha-1. An allometric model was developed to estimate AGB based on satellite measurements of canopy cover. A single species, Cordyla pinnata, accounted for 50% of all the trees censured. Satellite images showed considerable change in tree density during the investigated period (2004, 2009 and 2013). The tree density decreased at the rate of 3 and 6.4% per year from 2004-2009 and 2009-2013, respectively. Based on these results, all the trees would be lost in 16 years from 2013 if this trend continues. Informants were generally interested in increasing the number of fruit trees. On average, they were willing to allocate 19% of their land for planting new trees. Tree planting, however, was not traditionally considered an option by the landowners, since livestock damage on young trees was too big and fencing too costly. Recently, tree planting with certification for carbon sale was initiated with support from outside to test if carbon projects could be an option for improving rural livelihoods. 
Key words: Africa, forest resources, farmlands, deforestation, local management, woody biomass.





Introduction 
Deforestation poses a global challenge to humankind. In many areas of the world forests provide services such as conservation of biodiversity, water catchment, recreational value and carbon sequestration. Whereas in West Africa, trees are still used today to fulfil basic needs such as food, shelter, firewood, timber, utensils, fencing material and medicine. In rural areas, deforestation often has severe long-term consequences for the livelihood of the poorest farmers. This applies particularly to West Africa where the density of trees is now so low that the basic needs no longer can be met [1]. Soil degradation is another negative consequence of forest clearing that constitutes a constant threat to food security in West Africa [2, 3]. 
With 50% of people living below the poverty line of $1.90 per day, Sub-Saharan Africa is amongst the poorest regions in the world [4]. Rural poor are dependent on the local environment, but poverty is also widely recognized as a leading factor for degradation of the environment [5, 6].  Savannas have in densely populated regions largely been replaced by farmlands with sparsely distributed trees, which lead to a serious reduction in the locally available resources for rural livelihoods as well as a reduction in carbon stock and sequestration potential [7]. 
Detailed field-based mapping of woody vegetation is pivotal for gaining insight in spatial and temporal dynamics of plant resources. Likewise, the perceptions of rural dwellers on how they use the environment and observe changes are an important short cut to understanding the role of human impact on the woody vegetation [8, 9]. This knowledge is a prerequisite for developing locally anchored management plans for sustainable harvesting of wood and non-timber products.
This study aims to document the distribution of trees, their density, diversity, biomass and carbon stock in farmlands in the Saloum region of Senegal, and to estimate deforestation rates by comparing present and former tree density based on field data and information derived from satellite images. Finally, we aim to gain insight in socio-economic and ecological determinants for tree use based on local knowledge in order to give recommendations for efficient forest management practices. 
 Materials and Methods
Study site
The study was conducted in farmlands adjacent to four villages (Table 1) along the perimeter of Patako Forest Reserve in the Saloum region of Senegal (Figure 1). It is situated in the so-called �Peanut Basin�, which has been under cultivation for a century, and since the 1990s with little use of fallow or other soil conservation practices [10]. 
The altitude within the study area ranges between 10 and 40 m above sea level. The average rainfall is 700 mm with large annual variations. The annual precipitation declined by 20% compared to the period before the 1970s [11, 7]. During the period 1961-1987, the duration of the rainy season decreased by 0.46 days year-1 [12]. Lixisols are common throughout the study area and although the soil type is potentially fertile [13], it has turned increasingly sandy and nutrient-poor due to leaching caused by intensive farming without fallow periods. This led to a decrease in agricultural fields that were arable without fertilization. The average population density within the study area was 148 inhabitants per km2 in 2013 [14].
The main activity in the area is agriculture. The most important food-crop is pearl millet (Pennisetum glaucum) and the main commercial crop is peanut (Arachis hypogea) [15]. All crops are rain-fed and cultivated using a mixture of animal drawn plows and handheld tillage tools. In the dry season, vegetables are grown on alluvial soils in riverine areas, especially onion (Allium cepa). The most important planted fruit trees are cashew (Anacardium occidentale) and mango (Mangifera indica). The cash income of most households relied heavily on one or more family members living and working outside the village. Many tried to supplement their income by setting up small shops, but usually these contributed only little to the household economy.

Field investigations
Fifteen sampling plots were established of 15.7 ha each: four were placed outside each of the first three villages and three plots were placed around the fourth village. Two of the plots were placed 400-600 m from the village centre in the NE and SW quadrants; two plots were situated 800-916 m from the village centre in the NW and SE quadrants (Figure 2). First, the geographical coordinates of the centre of the village were marked as a waypoint on the handheld GPS navigator. Next, the investigator walked along the radius in a given compass direction until the inner circle demarcating the plot was reached. From this radius, all trees between the inner and outer circle segment delimiting the plot were recorded until the investigator reached the radius perpendicular to that of the starting point.
Trees with a diameter at breast height (dbh) e" 5 cm were recorded and identified to species level. Tree height and canopy cover were estimated. The locations were geo-referenced using a handheld GPS navigator. Photographs of individual trees were filed in a database (Figure 3).
Interviews
Selection of candidates for the semi-structured interviews were discussed with community leaders during preliminary visits in the villages. Adult female and male members of different households were interviewed individually in the local Wolof language. After a short introduction describing the background of the study, we asked a number of structured questions, divided into two categories; (i) purpose of cutting trees and (ii) tree planting possibilities (constraints, soil enhancing species, desired species and land for trees). In several cases, the questioning continued as a non-structured interview on related subjects. 
Data analysis
All statistical tests were performed using General Linear Models (GLM). Based on visual inspection of the residual plot, data were log-transformed when necessary to meet the assumptions of normality and homogeneity of variance. Each plot was evaluated for deviating large numbers of trees and adjusted density was calculated if the plot included (i) livestock paths, (ii) trees planted for demarcation of fields or (iii) large numbers of the exotic species, Azadirachta indica growing in the shade of larger trees. The approximate width of the livestock paths was recorded and the density of the trees adjusted to the average outside the livestock track. Trees planted to mark field boundaries and numerous A. indica recorded under big trees, probably as a result of bird dispersal, were omitted from the analysis. 
Above ground biomass (AGB) was calculated as dry mass from dbh using the allometric equation for tropical trees: AGB = 42.69-12.800 D+1.242 D2 [16] where AGB per tree measured in kg and D was dbh in cm. To estimate canopy cover, the canopy diameter was measured on the pictures taken on each tree. High resolution satellite images downloaded from Google Earth (dated 21 Feb. 2004, 23 April 2009 and 10 March 2013) were used to estimate changes in tree density and to evaluate spatial tree distribution patterns. On these images, it was possible to distinguish individual trees. The trees were counted and their canopy cover estimated. 
Best fit equations were used to estimate the relationship between canopy cover estimated from Google Earth images and dbh (Table 2). On this basis, dbh and following AGB can be estimated directly from Google Earth images by combining the best fit equation with the allometric equation: AGB =  EMBED Equation.3  . The equation is particularly useful in areas with good Google Earth or orthophoto coverage with a similar low density distribution of trees. The total carbon mass was calculated as 50% of the AGB. The average value of farmland crops was estimated from the informants� crop yields and income from sale of crops. The exchange rate considered was used: 100 CFA to 0.152449 Euro. Exploratory statistical methods were used to analyze the questioner data on purpose of cutting trees and tree planting possibilities.



Results
Density, above ground biomass and carbon
The average tree density on the 235.5 ha surveyed was 1.6 trees ha-1, with a range among plots from 0.4 to 4.0 trees ha-1. The average AGB was estimated to 8.9 t ha-1, varying from 2 to 25 t ha-1 over the plots. This corresponds to an average of 4.45 t carbon ha-1. The average tree height was 11 m, ranging from 2.0 to 22.5 m. The average dbh was 62 cm, ranging from 5 to 256 cm. Based on estimates from tree photos, the canopy cover in the surveyed area was 1% on average. In the village Keur Saloum Diane, a significantly higher density of trees was recorded, both for the direct-recorded tree density (p < 0.05) and for the adjusted density (p < 0.01). The AGB was also significantly higher in this village (p < 0.05).
Best fit equations between canopy cover and dbh were calculated for the five most common tree species of the 202 trees recorded in both field and Google Earth images (Table 2). Of these 50% were Cordyla pinnata (0.80 trees ha-1), 26% Azadirachta indica (0.40 trees ha-1) and 5% Ficus glumosa (0.08 trees ha-1). 
Change in tree density and spatial distribution patterns
Comparisons between Google Earth images and trees recorded on ground made it possible to estimate the magnitude of change in tree density and tree spatial distribution patterns (Table 3). During the five years periods (2004 to 2009), 14% of the trees had disappeared varying from 5 to 45% between the plots. A total of 3% of the trees was lost per year. With this change rate, all the trees would be lost in 30 years. The decrease of the tree cover from 2004 to 2009 corresponds to an estimated carbon loss of 143 kg ha-1 year-1. 
With Google Earth images from 2009 to 2013, 26% of the trees had disappeared varying from 8 to 44% between the plots. A total of 6.4% of the trees were lost per year. With this change, all the trees would be lost in 16 years. The change rate from 2009 to 2013 corresponds to an estimated carbon loss of 220 kg ha-1 year-1.

Purpose of cutting trees
�Need for firewood� was mentioned by 72% of the informants as the most important motive for tree cutting, followed by �need for timber� mentioned by 32% and �need for fencing material� mentioned by 25%. A few informants cited the use of local timber for making mortars, charcoal and furniture. The informants owned an average of 13 ha of cropland per household, and the average value of crops grown on farmland was 63 Euro ha-1 year-1. . 
Several of the informants pointed out that decreasing duration of the rainy season and declining soil fertility were the most serious concerns regarding the consequences of the on-going deterioration of their natural surroundings area. A few linked the decreasing number of trees to the perceived decrease in precipitation as well as duration of the rainy season. Most of the informants cited chemical fertilizers as the main solution to the problem of declining in soil fertility. 
Tree planting possibilities
The informants mentioned a number of constraints in relation to tree planting (Figure 4). �No fencing� and �tree seed expenses� were the major constraints for tree planting. This was followed by �problems of termite attacks� and �lack of energy/time�. The 14% of the informants, who cited �lack of energy/time� as a constraint, had an average age that was 14 years older than the overall average.
Plants with beneficial effects on the soil, such as nitrogen enrichment, form an integrated part of many agroforestry systems. However, only 36% of the informants were aware of such properties in plants. Four species were cited by more than two informants as being beneficial for the soil: Faidherbia albida [6], Cordyla pinnata [5], Guiera senegalensis [3] and Parkia biglobosa [3] (number of informants in brackets).
The informants unanimously wanted more useful fruit trees in the area. On average, they were willing to allocate 19% (2 ha) of their land to cultivate their preferred trees, a figure that ranged from 0.1 to 10.0 ha among informants. Most informants were willing to grow trees inside their fields (92%), fewer preferred planting in hedgerows (7%) or trees in home gardens (7%). For trees planted in fields, a total of 94% of the informants preferred trees planted in rows, and only 6% wanted trees planted in a scattered manner corresponding to actual spatial distribution of trees.
Discussion
Density, above ground biomass and carbon
The tree density and diversity recorded in this study were low and in decline due to intensive peanut farming and a high population density. In the same area, a total of 35 species with a density of one individual per hectare was found. The first cultivation of peanut date back to around 1900. It intensified dramatically in the 1950s and 1960s. In 1990s peanut farms had expanded to a point where only a few patches of protected woodlands were left [10]. The region is now one of the earliest intensively cultivated regions in Senegal with a long history of dense human settlements. The region is a showcase of unsustainable rural development with a continuous decline in tree density. 
The overall density of 1.6 trees ha-1 was very low. In the village of Keur Saloum Diane, tree density was notably higher, probably due to the permanent presence of forestry authorities in the area. The 1% canopy cover estimated in this study is distinctly lower than the 8% canopy cover recorded for the overall region in 1994 [7]. An average biomass of 8.9 t ha-1 was also low compared to a study in Segou, which is situated in a much drier region. In the Malian traditional parkland agroforestry systems, the biomass varied between 45 and 108 t ha-1 [17]. The satellite based global biomass carbon map produced in 2008 estimated a potential 400 t carbon in the study area, contrasting the present 4-5 t carbon ha-1 in farmland [18]. 
Trees decline in agricultural lands is a global phenomenon [19]. The relative importance of decreasing precipitation and anthropogenic impact as determinants of deforestation is of key importance for future attempts to manage plant resources in an environmentally sustainable way. In more densely populated areas, where smallholders depend on trees for firewood, food and shelter, the forest is mainly declining for anthropogenic reasons [11]. In the protected Patako Forest adjacent to the study area, the average tree density ranged between 190 and 361 trees ha-1 [20]. This is 100 times more than the corresponding figures recorded in the farmlands. 
In the Sahelo-Sudanian zone in northwestern Senegal, a decline in tree density was reported (trees of height e" 3m) from 10 trees ha-1 in 1954 to 7.8 trees ha-1 in 1989, which corresponds to a yearly deforestation rate of 0.06 trees ha-1 [21]. This is similar to the decline rate of 0.07 trees ha-1 year-1 t recorded in the present study. However, since the tree density in our study area was five times smaller, we can conclude that the human pressure on the trees resources is much higher in relative terms. 
Although in many cases, it is difficult to find a relation between satellite-based variables and widespread measures of vegetation quality, such as diversity and density [22], high resolution Google Earth images makes it possible to estimate tree density. The decline rate from 2004 to 2009 and 2009 to 2013 corresponds to a carbon loss of 143 kg ha-1 year-1 and 220 kg ha-1 year-1, which is considerably less than the estimated average carbon loss of 924 kg ha-1 year-1 for the New Peanut Basin ecoregion in Senegal [6]. The biomass recorded in this study was already low because of large-scale deforestation in the past by commercial loggers and local communities. In the 1970s, many trees were removed from the fields because they were considered a hindrance for tilling, and some informants reported that smallholders in 1982-83, were rewarded with food from the Senegalese Ministry of Agriculture, if they cleared two hectares of land completely for trees including regrowth. In the fields, we observed that tree saplings were weeded away. Livestock inside fields and villages heavily browsed juvenile plants. The invasive species Azadirachta indica was the only exception being found in all age-classes outside the fields. The great resilience of this species is due to its resprouting ability, vigorous growth, limited browser palatability and effective seed dispersal by birds.

We discussed with the informants whether a more environmentally sustainable management of the livestock could possibly prevent the negative effect of uncontrolled browsing. Unclear land tenure and lack of sanctions for damages inflicted on tree crops by livestock make it impossible to protect newly established plantations. The informants considered fencing the only effective solution to damages inflicted by browsing. To purchase the expensive fencing materials, farmers depend on support from the outside. In nearby Fathala Forest, a 90% mortality rate was recorded in 2011 in the natural regenerated seedlings of Cordyla pinnata mainly due to browsing [23]. Termites also often constitute a constraining factor on reforestation, since insecticides are too costly for smallholders. 
Cordyla pinnata � a key species
Despite the fact that Cordyla pinnata was the most abundant tree in the study area with 50% of all trees, the informants considered it in decline. It is a popular tree on farmland because it delivers edible fruits, firewood and timber, but is in risk of overexploitation [24]. Despite the significant quantitative decline, it is the most preferred species in this region [14]. Cordyla pinnata provides at least 20 ecosystem services [25]. In farmland not far from the study area, C. pinnata comprised 60% of all trees and the density amounted to 4 trees ha-1 [26, 27]. This is significantly higher than in nearby savanna areas: In the Patako Forest, C. pinnata ranked the fourth most abundant tree, with a density of 9 trees ha-1 [28]. In the Fathala Forest, C. pinnata constituted only 1.5 % of the 1837 trees monitored and the overall density amounted to 2.7 trees ha-1 [29].
Soil enhancing plants
Managing agricultural lands to increase soil carbon sequestration enhances agronomic and ecosystem sustainability through associated increase in soil nutrient cycling and aggregate stability [30]. In this study, one third of the informants recognized the beneficial effects of plants on soil fertility. This is in sharp contrast to a study from Nigeria, where 82% of informants cited improvement of soil fertility as the major reason for adopting alley cropping systems [31]. In this study, the well-known nitrogen fixing species, Faidherbia albida, was most frequently mentioned as a plant with a positive effect on soil fertility. Guiera senegalensis was mentioned by 3 informants as improving soil properties for cultivation. A study conducted in Senegal confirmed that Guiera senegalensis enhances the levels of inorganic nitrogen in the soil and increases the carbon mineralization [32].
Useful tree species
Important roles of trees and agroforestry in reducing smallholder�s exposure to climate-related risks have been demonstrated [33, 34]. In Africa, trees on agricultural lands generate multiple provisioning ecosystem services. Medicinal uses, contribution to fodder for livestock and importance for human nutrition [33, 35]. In rural areas, resource management is often a trade-off between the ecosystem services provided by trees and income generation from cultivated crops [36]. The average value of 63 Euro ha-1 year-1 from crops grown on farmland has to be balanced against the cash income and additional services offered by trees species available for planting. 
In a future with climate change and enhanced risk for catastrophic weather events, these domesticated and semi-domesticated trees on farmland will undoubtedly play an important role in delivering food security and famine food, for example during extended periods of drought. Trees on agro system can increase carbon sequestration and smallholder farmers can benefit from the REDD+ mechanism. Carbon incentive was able to increase carbon sequestered on farms and agroecosystems offers an opportunity for sequestering a large amount of carbon [37, 38].
Conclusions
The Patako region is one of the most intensively cultivated regions in Senegal outside the capital with heavily impact caused by a steadily increasing human population. Conversion of dry forest into farmlands lead to a depletion of the natural resource base, a negative development that is further reinforced by the fact that the surviving useful trees in fields can no longer be exploited on a sustainable basis. The decision to cultivate useful trees on farmland is a trade-off between the perceived value of the products and services delivered by the trees on one hand and the monetary value from the crops that can be grown on the same land on the other hand. There is an interest for planting in the local communities, but traditionally there are several constraints. This study reveals that few trees will remain in the study area after one generation if current practices are not changed. 
There is a need to increase tree planting in the study area like in several areas of West Africa. Planting of useful trees that can provide incomes to the villagers is imperative. Alternative sources of incomes are needed during the unproductive juvenile stages, which may last up to 10 years. Although the informants of the present study expressed the willingness to increase the amount of trees on their land, they also mentioned how difficult it was to procure appropriate conditions for tree planting. The biggest bottleneck was lack of money to pay for fencing materials, irrigation systems and pesticides for termite control. An economic input to the area would make tree planting an attractive possibility for local farmers. Selling carbon credits can be a lucrative way to assure such incomes during the establishment period. A project aiming at generating climate-, livelihood- and ecosystem benefits to local farmers is presently being established and certified via the Plan Vivo system. Payment for these ecosystem services will be paid in the form of carbon credits to local people. It will hopefully prove to be an efficient mean to change the negative circle of decline in tree populations followed by increase in poverty.
Acknowledgements 
We are grateful to the villagers in the Patako area, who devoted their time for interviews. Thanks are also due to Seydina Issa Ndoye, who served as interpreter during field work. The study was supported economically by SUN (EU-Inco-dev 031685) and Undesert (EU-FP7 243906).





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Figure captions
Figure. 1 Study sites in farmlands adjacent to Patako Forest Reserve, Senegal.
Figure 2. Plots for tree recording around the village Ndiayene Momath Thiane. Each of the recorded trees is indicated with white circles.
Figure 3. Cordyla pinnata near Keur Saloum Diane village and a view of the adjacent farmlands with scattered trees.
Figure 4. Constraints in tree planting experienced by informants.

















Table 1. The four villages considered in Saloum region 
VillageKeur Boubacar ManeKeur Saloum DianeKeur Lahine SokhnaNdiayene Momath ThianeGeographical coordinates13�37'54"N; 16�16'25"W13�45'16"N; 16�16'3"W13�43'41"N; 16�13'16"W13�43'39"N; 16�17'55"WInhabitants (2013)555a1368770501Distance from Patako Forest (km)2.04.21.03.1a including inhabitants of the neighbouring village � Keur Momath Souna










Table 2. Best fit equations of correlations between canopy cover (C) estimated from satellite images and dbh
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Table 3. Estimated trees for each plot and village in 2004, 2009 and 2013
PlotVillageaNumber of trees in 2004Number of trees in 2009Number of trees in 20131KBM161382KBM4036203KBM2715124KSD3935305KSD5449356KSD6663407KSD3028218KLS1613129KLS31292410KLS28242211KLS22121112NMT21191513NMT1614914NMT107615NMT1197aKBM: Keur Boubacar Mane; KSD: Keur Saloum Diane; KLS: Keur Lahine Sokhna; NMT: Ndiayene Momath Thiane.  








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Youez - 2016 - github.com/yon3zu
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