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�F�F�I�F�F�F�F�F#j#j�I�F�F�F�j�F�F�F�Frr$��:#�rr�:#rrrNNNNNN����Abstract
Background: There is paucity of research about how previously internally displaced people in post-conflict Uganda cope with the associated adversity and trauma. Understanding factors that underlie coping with such adversity is vital in identifying resilience and health promoting behaviours. 

Methods: We conducted 8 FGDs in 4 sub-counties in Uganda between March and May 2009. We tape-recorded and transcribed the data. We used thematic analysis to manage, analyse and interpret the data. We constantly identified and compared themes and sub-themes in the dataset as we read the transcripts. 

Results: Life adversity experienced following exposure to conflict included loss of life, livelihood, and traumatisation. Complications associated with adversity were self-doubt, worries, inclination to crime, fatalism, vengefulness, and alcohol abuse. Adaptive coping approaches to adversity included re-skilling, religiosity, counselling, comfort in sexual intimacy and joining therapeutic groups. Maladaptive coping strategies were reflected in apprehension, uncertainty, suspiciousness and learned helplessness. Consequences of maladaptive coping took the form of promiscuity, disrespect of authority, disrupted education, famine and domestic violence. The resilient were people who were prayerful and the socially supported.

Conclusions: There is need to sustainably engage in re-establishment of social capital, empowerment and cultivation of self-belief. Any post-conflict reconstruction should take cognizance of the adaptive coping mechanisms and people�s resilience. Strengthening locally prevailing community-sanctioned support systems like family ties, friendships, religious faiths rather than routine psychiatric services seem to be more relevant initial responses to trauma in a post-conflict setting. Any attempts at relief should focus on strengthening of therapeutic self-help groups. 

Key Words: Post-Conflict, trauma, Uganda, resilience, coping, qualitative researchIntroduction 
In Eastern Uganda, conflict existed in varying intensities and intermittency from as far back as the 1950�s. The main players were: Karamonjog cattle rustlers; Uganda People�s Army (UPA) who staged a rebellion against the government from 1985 to 1992; Alice Lakwena�s spiritual/political rebellion of 1987-1988; the Lord�s Resistance Army (LRA) incursions in Teso sub-region in 2002, 2004 and 2006; and government armed forces who fought each of these antagonists as they tried to liberate civilians  ADDIN EN.CITE  ADDIN EN.CITE.DATA ( HYPERLINK \l "_ENREF_2" \o "Allen, 1991 #168" T. Allen, 1991;  HYPERLINK \l "_ENREF_25" \o "Kinyanda, 2002 #178" Kinyanda & Musisi, 2002;  HYPERLINK \l "_ENREF_35" \o "Pham, 2008 #186" Pham, Vinck P, & Stover, 2008). By January 2010, about 200,000 people out of about 2 million who had been displaced in northern Uganda and the Teso sub-region were still living in camps  ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Mukasa</Author><Year>2010</Year><RecNum>184</RecNum><DisplayText>(Mukasa &amp; Odomel, 2010)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>184</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="a0d2ews2b529dueavpcxtx5lep20a0t9atw2">184</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Newspaper Article">23</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Mukasa, H,</author><author>Odomel, J,</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>200,000 Still in IDP Camps</title><secondary-title>New Vision: Uganda&apos;s Leading Daily</secondary-title></titles><dates><year>2010</year><pub-dates><date>7th January</date></pub-dates></dates><urls><related-urls><url>http://allafrica.com/search/?string=Mukasa+H%2C+Odomel+J.+200%2C000+</url></related-urls></urls></record></Cite><Cite><Author>Mukasa</Author><Year>2010</Year><RecNum>184</RecNum><record><rec-number>184</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="a0d2ews2b529dueavpcxtx5lep20a0t9atw2">184</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Newspaper Article">23</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Mukasa, H,</author><author>Odomel, J,</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>200,000 Still in IDP Camps</title><secondary-title>New Vision: Uganda&apos;s Leading Daily</secondary-title></titles><dates><year>2010</year><pub-dates><date>7th January</date></pub-dates></dates><urls><related-urls><url>http://allafrica.com/search/?string=Mukasa+H%2C+Odomel+J.+200%2C000+</url></related-urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>( HYPERLINK \l "_ENREF_32" \o "Mukasa, 2010 #184" Mukasa & Odomel, 2010). The traumatic stress following such traumatic events resulted into helplessness, terror and suffering. Profound adversity of this nature often shakes the foundations of pleasurable living. Coping with such adversity often involves reconstruction of the meaning of �life�, a process that has been discussed as having a likelihood of altering ethno-cultural insights  ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Rajkumar</Author><Year>2008</Year><RecNum>190</RecNum><DisplayText>(Rajkumar, Premkumar, &amp; Tharyan, 2008)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>190</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="a0d2ews2b529dueavpcxtx5lep20a0t9atw2">190</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Rajkumar, A. P.</author><author>Premkumar, T. S.</author><author>Tharyan, P.</author></authors></contributors><auth-address>Department of Psychiatry, Christian Medical College, Bagayam, Vellore 632002, Tamil Nadu, India. antoprajkumar@cmvellore.ac.in</auth-address><titles><title>Coping with the Asian tsunami: perspectives from Tamil Nadu, India on the determinants of resilience in the face of adversity</title><secondary-title>Soc Sci Med</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Soc Sci Med</full-title></periodical><pages>844-53</pages><volume>67</volume><number>5</number><edition>2008/06/20</edition><keywords><keyword>*Adaptation, Psychological</keyword><keyword>Asia</keyword><keyword>*Disasters</keyword><keyword>Female</keyword><keyword>Focus Groups</keyword><keyword>Grief</keyword><keyword>Humans</keyword><keyword>India</keyword><keyword>Male</keyword><keyword>Parents/psychology</keyword><keyword>Sociology, Medical</keyword><keyword>Spirituality</keyword><keyword>Stress Disorders, Post-Traumatic/psychology</keyword><keyword>Stress, Psychological/*psychology</keyword><keyword>Survivors/*psychology</keyword><keyword>*Tidal Waves</keyword></keywords><dates><year>2008</year><pub-dates><date>Sep</date></pub-dates></dates><isbn>0277-9536 (Print)&#xD;0277-9536 (Linking)</isbn><accession-num>18562066</accession-num><work-type>Research Support, Non-U.S. Gov&apos;t</work-type><urls><related-urls><url>http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18562066</url></related-urls></urls><electronic-resource-num>10.1016/j.socscimed.2008.05.014</electronic-resource-num><language>eng</language></record></Cite></EndNote>( HYPERLINK \l "_ENREF_39" \o "Rajkumar, 2008 #190" Rajkumar, Premkumar, & Tharyan, 2008).

Since time immemorial, armed conflicts have often been associated with direct debilitating consequences like; deaths, diseases, stress, migration and environmental destruction; indirect socio-economic ruin in the form of institutional and infrastructural destruction and loss of human capital; and opportunity costs in terms of famine due to disruption of agriculture as well as poverty due to disruption of commerce and education  ADDIN EN.CITE  ADDIN EN.CITE.DATA ( HYPERLINK \l "_ENREF_40" \o "Ramos-Jimenez, 2005 #191" Ramos-Jimenez, Sommerfeld, & Zwi, 2005;  HYPERLINK \l "_ENREF_42" \o "Samarasinghe, 2001 #161" Samarasinghe, Donaldson, & McGinn, 2001). Large parts of northern and eastern Uganda still display signs of impoverishment because of the devastation caused by�armed conflict  ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD)</Author><Year>April, 2012</Year><RecNum>174</RecNum><DisplayText>(International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD), April, 2012)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>174</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="a0d2ews2b529dueavpcxtx5lep20a0t9atw2">174</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Generic">13</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD),</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Enabling poor rural people to overcome poverty</title></titles><dates><year>April, 2012</year></dates><publisher>http://www.ifad.org/operations/projects/regions/Pf/factsheets/uganda.pdf</publisher><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>( HYPERLINK \l "_ENREF_21" \o "International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD), April, 2012 #174" International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD), April, 2012). Many people were displaced and exposed to high risk sexual behaviors (HRSB), which could explain the higher HIV/AIDS prevalence rates when compared against the national average  ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Ministry of Health in Uganda</Author><Year>2012</Year><RecNum>183</RecNum><DisplayText>(Ministry of Health in Uganda, 2012)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>183</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="a0d2ews2b529dueavpcxtx5lep20a0t9atw2">183</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Web Page">12</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Ministry of Health in Uganda,</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Uganda AIDS Indicator Survey, 2011: Pleliminary Report</title></titles><number>7th July, 2010</number><dates><year>2012</year><pub-dates><date>March</date></pub-dates></dates><urls><related-urls><url>http://ms-hiv-gdc.org/wp-content/uploads/group-documents/24/1334583717-UAIS-PRELIMINARYREPORT-MARCH2012.pdf</url></related-urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>( HYPERLINK \l "_ENREF_31" \o "Ministry of Health in Uganda, 2012 #183" Ministry of Health in Uganda, 2012). 

Epidemiologic studies of trauma associated with forced displacement, torture, rape, violence, witnessing killings and many other tragedies have increased considerably in recent years  ADDIN EN.CITE  ADDIN EN.CITE.DATA ( HYPERLINK \l "_ENREF_23" \o "Kaminer, 2008 #177" Kaminer, Grimsrud, Myer, Stein, & Williams, 2008;  HYPERLINK \l "_ENREF_30" \o "Miller, 2010 #182" Miller & Rasmussen, 2010;  HYPERLINK \l "_ENREF_47" \o "Steel, 2009 #198" Steel et al., 2009). Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) is frequently identified as one of the most frequent and debilitating psychological disorders occurring in post-conflict societies  ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Ghosh</Author><Year>2004</Year><RecNum>223</RecNum><DisplayText>(Ghosh, Mohit, &amp; Murthy, 2004)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>223</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="a0d2ews2b529dueavpcxtx5lep20a0t9atw2">223</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Ghosh, N.</author><author>Mohit, A.</author><author>Murthy, R. S.</author></authors></contributors><auth-address>Eastern Mediterranean Regional Office of World Health Organization, Post Box 11371, Nasr City, Cairo, Egypt.</auth-address><titles><title>Mental health promotion in post-conflict countries</title><secondary-title>J R Soc Promot Health</secondary-title><alt-title>The journal of the Royal Society for the Promotion of Health</alt-title></titles><periodical><full-title>J R Soc Promot Health</full-title><abbr-1>The journal of the Royal Society for the Promotion of Health</abbr-1></periodical><alt-periodical><full-title>J R Soc Promot Health</full-title><abbr-1>The journal of the Royal Society for the Promotion of Health</abbr-1></alt-periodical><pages>268-70</pages><volume>124</volume><number>6</number><edition>2004/12/18</edition><keywords><keyword>Health Planning</keyword><keyword>Humans</keyword><keyword>Mental Disorders/*prevention &amp; control</keyword><keyword>Mental Health Services/*organization &amp; administration</keyword><keyword>*Relief Work</keyword><keyword>*War</keyword></keywords><dates><year>2004</year><pub-dates><date>Nov</date></pub-dates></dates><isbn>1466-4240 (Print)&#xD;1466-4240 (Linking)</isbn><accession-num>15602995</accession-num><work-type>Research Support, Non-U.S. Gov&apos;t</work-type><urls><related-urls><url>http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15602995</url></related-urls></urls><language>eng</language></record></Cite></EndNote>( HYPERLINK \l "_ENREF_16" \o "Ghosh, 2004 #223" Ghosh, Mohit, & Murthy, 2004). Prevalence rates for PTSD have been reported to range from 20.4%-72.8% among the survivors of prolonged and extensive suffering due to conflict  ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Ghosh</Author><Year>2004</Year><RecNum>223</RecNum><DisplayText>(Ghosh et al., 2004)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>223</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="a0d2ews2b529dueavpcxtx5lep20a0t9atw2">223</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Ghosh, N.</author><author>Mohit, A.</author><author>Murthy, R. S.</author></authors></contributors><auth-address>Eastern Mediterranean Regional Office of World Health Organization, Post Box 11371, Nasr City, Cairo, Egypt.</auth-address><titles><title>Mental health promotion in post-conflict countries</title><secondary-title>J R Soc Promot Health</secondary-title><alt-title>The journal of the Royal Society for the Promotion of Health</alt-title></titles><periodical><full-title>J R Soc Promot Health</full-title><abbr-1>The journal of the Royal Society for the Promotion of Health</abbr-1></periodical><alt-periodical><full-title>J R Soc Promot Health</full-title><abbr-1>The journal of the Royal Society for the Promotion of Health</abbr-1></alt-periodical><pages>268-70</pages><volume>124</volume><number>6</number><edition>2004/12/18</edition><keywords><keyword>Health Planning</keyword><keyword>Humans</keyword><keyword>Mental Disorders/*prevention &amp; control</keyword><keyword>Mental Health Services/*organization &amp; administration</keyword><keyword>*Relief Work</keyword><keyword>*War</keyword></keywords><dates><year>2004</year><pub-dates><date>Nov</date></pub-dates></dates><isbn>1466-4240 (Print)&#xD;1466-4240 (Linking)</isbn><accession-num>15602995</accession-num><work-type>Research Support, Non-U.S. Gov&apos;t</work-type><urls><related-urls><url>http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15602995</url></related-urls></urls><language>eng</language></record></Cite></EndNote>( HYPERLINK \l "_ENREF_16" \o "Ghosh, 2004 #223" Ghosh et al., 2004). 

A critical look at the prevalence of psychiatric morbidity, including PTSD, following wars and other conflicts in developed and developing countries reveals interesting differences  ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>de Jong</Author><Year>2001</Year><RecNum>170</RecNum><DisplayText>(de Jong et al., 2001)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>170</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="a0d2ews2b529dueavpcxtx5lep20a0t9atw2">170</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>de Jong, J. V. T.</author><author>Komproe, I. H.</author><author>Van Ommeren, M.</author><author>El Masri, M.</author><author>Araya, M.</author><author>Khaled, N.</author><author>van De Put, W.</author><author>Somasundaram, D.</author></authors></contributors><auth-address>Transcultural Psychosocial Organisation (TPO), Keizersgracht 329, 1016 EE, Amsterdam, the Netherlands.</auth-address><titles><title>Lifetime events and posttraumatic stress disorder in 4 postconflict settings</title><secondary-title>Jama</secondary-title><alt-title>JAMA : the journal of the American Medical Association</alt-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Jama</full-title></periodical><pages>555-62</pages><volume>286</volume><number>5</number><edition>2001/08/14</edition><keywords><keyword>Adult</keyword><keyword>Algeria</keyword><keyword>Cambodia</keyword><keyword>Developing Countries</keyword><keyword>Ethiopia</keyword><keyword>Female</keyword><keyword>Humans</keyword><keyword>Israel</keyword><keyword>Life Change Events</keyword><keyword>Logistic Models</keyword><keyword>Male</keyword><keyword>Prevalence</keyword><keyword>Risk Factors</keyword><keyword>Stress Disorders, Post-Traumatic/*epidemiology</keyword><keyword>Survivors/*psychology</keyword><keyword>Violence/*psychology</keyword><keyword>*War</keyword></keywords><dates><year>2001</year><pub-dates><date>Aug 1</date></pub-dates></dates><isbn>0098-7484 (Print)&#xD;0098-7484 (Linking)</isbn><accession-num>11476657</accession-num><work-type>Research Support, Non-U.S. Gov&apos;t</work-type><urls><related-urls><url>http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11476657</url></related-urls></urls><language>eng</language></record></Cite></EndNote>( HYPERLINK \l "_ENREF_11" \o "de Jong, 2001 #170" de Jong et al., 2001). Socio-cultural variations that underlie these differences have rarely been explained. Literature on coping with life adversity in post-conflict societies tends to focus on former armed actors in conflicts. There is little focus on coping that happens among mass in-country displaced people. Although coping is often recognised as a pre-condition for proper mental health, there is paucity of research from sub-Saharan Africa that elucidates that relationship. Furthermore, there is paucity of research about life adversity experienced following exposure to conflict and consequences of adopted coping strategies in post-conflict Uganda. Based on the mental health promotion perspective, the enormous number of people who live with mental health challenges for many years brings into focus the need for recovery on the basis of coping. It is probable that resilience in the face of adversity could be far more common and that the capacity for normal functioning without professional intervention maybe enormously under-estimated  ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Bonanno</Author><Year>2004</Year><RecNum>204</RecNum><DisplayText>(Bonanno, 2004; Summerfield, 2001)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>204</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="a0d2ews2b529dueavpcxtx5lep20a0t9atw2">204</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Bonanno, G,</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Loss, trauma and human resilience: have we underestimated the human capacity to thrive after extremely aversive events? </title><secondary-title>The American Psychologist</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>The American Psychologist</full-title></periodical><pages>20-28</pages><volume>59</volume><dates><year>2004</year></dates><urls></urls></record></Cite><Cite><Author>Summerfield</Author><Year>2001</Year><RecNum>199</RecNum><record><rec-number>199</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="a0d2ews2b529dueavpcxtx5lep20a0t9atw2">199</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Summerfield, D,</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>The invention of post-traumatic stress disorder and the social usefulness of a psychiatric category</title><secondary-title>British Medical Journal</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>British Medical Journal</full-title></periodical><pages>95�98</pages><volume>322</volume><dates><year>2001</year></dates><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>( HYPERLINK \l "_ENREF_5" \o "Bonanno, 2004 #204" Bonanno, 2004;  HYPERLINK \l "_ENREF_48" \o "Summerfield, 2001 #199" Summerfield, 2001). 

Understanding factors that underpin coping with life adversity in post-conflict societies is vital in identifying health-compromising factors and harnessing resilience-promoting tendencies so that they can part of interventions to improve quality of life. Using a qualitative approach, we explored coping with life adversity in post-conflict Eastern Uganda in terms of life adversity experienced, coping strategies and their consequences.

Methods
Study Area
The study was conducted in Teso sub-region. The participants were from 4 sub-counties, 3 in Katakwi district and 1 in Amuria district. By 2010, the estimated population of Katakwi was 153,600 people and 315,900 people in Amuria  ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>UBOS</Author><Year>2005</Year><RecNum>166</RecNum><DisplayText>(UBOS, 2005)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>166</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="a0d2ews2b529dueavpcxtx5lep20a0t9atw2">166</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Report">27</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>UBOS,</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>2002 Uganda Population and Housing Census, Main Report</title></titles><dates><year>2005</year></dates><publisher>Entebbe: Uganda Bureau of Statistics (UBOS)</publisher><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>( HYPERLINK \l "_ENREF_50" \o "UBOS, 2005 #166" UBOS, 2005). They population was a target of a community psychosocial intervention project implemented by the Transcultural Psychosocial Organization (TPO-Uganda) under the auspices of Uganda AIDS Commission-Civil Society Fund. TPO-Uganda is a Non-Governmental Organization (NGO) that commenced operations in Uganda in 1994 with the aim of providing psychosocial support and mental health care to communities, families and individuals in conflict and post-conflict settings. The main ethnic groups in the study area are the Iteso and Kumam and the main language is Ateso. Subsistence agriculture and pastoral animal husbandry are the two main economic activities. The agricultural products are millet, sorghum, groundnuts, sim-sim, cow peas, maize, soya beans, sweet potatoes, and vegetables. The main cash crop is cotton. Though having tarmac roads, the two districts have mostly seasonal, dusty and pot-holed roads and footpaths traversed mostly by motorcycles and bicycles. 

Design of the Study
Using a cross-sectional qualitative approach, we set out to understand peoples� coping within a post-conflict setting, hoping to examine not only what they think but how they think and why they think that way. Since we set out to appreciate a focused view of coping, we opted to use Focus Group Discussions (FGDs)  ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Helman</Author><Year>1994</Year><RecNum>173</RecNum><DisplayText>(Helman, 1994)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>173</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="a0d2ews2b529dueavpcxtx5lep20a0t9atw2">173</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Book">6</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Helman, C,</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Culture, health and illness: An introduction for health professionals</title></titles><dates><year>1994</year></dates><publisher>London: Butterworth-Heinemann</publisher><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>( HYPERLINK \l "_ENREF_19" \o "Helman, 1994 #173" Helman, 1994). This approach is known to be good in understanding social processes and concepts from the perspectives of study participants as informed by their lived experiences  ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Pope</Author><Year>1995</Year><RecNum>154</RecNum><DisplayText>(C. Pope &amp; N. Mays, 1995)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>154</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="a0d2ews2b529dueavpcxtx5lep20a0t9atw2">154</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Pope, C.</author><author>Mays, N.</author></authors></contributors><auth-address>Department of Epidemiology and Public Health, University of Leicester.</auth-address><titles><title>Reaching the parts other methods cannot reach: an introduction to qualitative methods in health and health services research</title><secondary-title>bmj</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>bmj</full-title></periodical><pages>42-5</pages><volume>311</volume><number>6996</number><edition>1995/07/01</edition><keywords><keyword>Great Britain</keyword><keyword>Health Services Research/*methods</keyword><keyword>Humans</keyword><keyword>Research Design</keyword></keywords><dates><year>1995</year><pub-dates><date>Jul 1</date></pub-dates></dates><isbn>0959-8138 (Print)&#xD;0959-535X (Linking)</isbn><accession-num>7613329</accession-num><urls><related-urls><url>http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7613329</url></related-urls></urls><custom2>2550091</custom2><language>eng</language></record></Cite></EndNote>( HYPERLINK \l "_ENREF_37" \o "Pope, 1995 #154" C. Pope & N. Mays, 1995). Results reported in this article are from a bigger study conducted to assess vulnerability to HRSB following exposure to war trauma as seen in Eastern Uganda.

Study Participants and Procedures
Data were collected between March and May 2009 from 8 FGDs on the premise that being a post-conflict setting, immediate conflict-related stress would have waned and successful community coping strategies would be identifiable. Selection of study participants in FGDs was done in such a way that it represented variation in the phenomenon of interest. All study participants in the FGDs had to be aged 15 years and above. They also had to be residents in the study area. To attain theoretical sensitivity, heterogeneity of participants was ensured through adherence to diversity in terms of age and gender differences of selected study participants. Using open-ended questions, we interfaced with men alone and women alone whose ages ranged from 15-24, 25-34 and e" 35 years. Additional 2 groups were of in-school and out-of-school youths. The FGDs took place at venues convenient to study participants and were in Itesot. The FGDs consisted of 7 to 12 participants and were useful in eliciting rich data associated with peer interaction and debate.

Whereas the possibility of compromising data quality was high, this was anticipated and forestalled during the planning process. The data collection tool was pre-tested to ensure its appropriateness. The tool was originally formulated in English but translated into Itesot, and blind back-translated into English to ensure conceptual consistency and accuracy. Research assistants who spoke both languages translated the guide from English to Itesot, and the other four assistants did the back-translation. Each focus group was moderated by two experienced research assistants who were Ateso speakers and were aware of the cultural context and subjectivity. The moderators ensured that each item on the question guide was fully discussed and that all respondents had sufficient opportunity to air their views. One research assistant facilitated the discussions while the other recorded the proceedings, noting key themes and monitoring verbal and non-verbal interactions. 

The question guide was developed based on issues raised and existing literature  ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Marsella</Author><Year>2004</Year><RecNum>181</RecNum><DisplayText>(Marsella &amp; Christopher, 2004)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>181</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="a0d2ews2b529dueavpcxtx5lep20a0t9atw2">181</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Marsella, A. J.</author><author>Christopher, M. A.</author></authors></contributors><auth-address>Department of Psychology, University of Hawaii, Honolulu, Hawaii 96822, USA. marsella@hawaii.edu</auth-address><titles><title>Ethnocultural considerations in disasters: an overview of research, issues, and directions</title><secondary-title>Psychiatr Clin North Am</secondary-title><alt-title>The Psychiatric clinics of North America</alt-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Psychiatr Clin North Am</full-title><abbr-1>The Psychiatric clinics of North America</abbr-1></periodical><alt-periodical><full-title>Psychiatr Clin North Am</full-title><abbr-1>The Psychiatric clinics of North America</abbr-1></alt-periodical><pages>521-39</pages><volume>27</volume><number>3</number><edition>2004/08/25</edition><keywords><keyword>*Culture</keyword><keyword>Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders</keyword><keyword>*Disasters</keyword><keyword>Health Personnel/education</keyword><keyword>Humans</keyword><keyword>Intention</keyword><keyword>*International Cooperation</keyword><keyword>Stress Disorders, Post-Traumatic/diagnosis/*psychology</keyword><keyword>Teaching/methods</keyword></keywords><dates><year>2004</year><pub-dates><date>Sep</date></pub-dates></dates><isbn>0193-953X (Print)&#xD;0193-953X (Linking)</isbn><accession-num>15325491</accession-num><work-type>Review</work-type><urls><related-urls><url>http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15325491</url></related-urls></urls><electronic-resource-num>10.1016/j.psc.2004.03.011</electronic-resource-num><language>eng</language></record></Cite></EndNote>( HYPERLINK \l "_ENREF_27" \o "Marsella, 2004 #181" Marsella & Christopher, 2004). The three major themes considered a priori were (i) life adversities experienced following exposure to conflict, (ii) coping strategies employed, and (iii), consequences of coping strategies. We collected and analyzed data to a point where no more new information to enrich theme identification was forthcoming  ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Guest</Author><Year>2006</Year><RecNum>172</RecNum><DisplayText>(Guest, Bunce, &amp; Johnson, 2006)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>172</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="a0d2ews2b529dueavpcxtx5lep20a0t9atw2">172</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Guest, G.</author><author>Bunce, A.</author><author>Johnson, L.</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>How many interviews are enough? an experiment with data saturation and variability</title><secondary-title>Field Methods</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Field Methods</full-title></periodical><pages>59-82</pages><volume>18</volume><number>1</number><dates><year>2006</year></dates><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>( HYPERLINK \l "_ENREF_18" \o "Guest, 2006 #172" Guest, Bunce, & Johnson, 2006). Theme identification started during literature review and continued as long as patterns that captured interesting issues were emerging  ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Braun</Author><Year>2006</Year><RecNum>217</RecNum><DisplayText>(Braun &amp; Clarke, 2006; Ryan &amp; Bernard, 2003)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>217</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="a0d2ews2b529dueavpcxtx5lep20a0t9atw2">217</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Braun, V.</author><author>Clarke, V.</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Using thematic analysis in psychology</title><secondary-title>Qualitative Research in Psychology</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Qualitative Research in Psychology</full-title></periodical><pages>77-101</pages><volume>3</volume><dates><year>2006</year></dates><urls></urls></record></Cite><Cite><Author>Ryan</Author><Year>2003</Year><RecNum>194</RecNum><record><rec-number>194</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="a0d2ews2b529dueavpcxtx5lep20a0t9atw2">194</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Ryan, G. W.</author><author>Bernard, H, R.</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Techniques to identify themes</title><secondary-title>Field Methods</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Field Methods</full-title></periodical><pages>85-109</pages><volume>15</volume><number>1</number><dates><year>2003</year></dates><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>( HYPERLINK \l "_ENREF_7" \o "Braun, 2006 #217" Braun & Clarke, 2006;  HYPERLINK \l "_ENREF_41" \o "Ryan, 2003 #194" Ryan & Bernard, 2003). We introduced each theme using broad, open-ended and simple, non-technical language. We also used probes to clarify and confirm issues and to explore and voluntarily discuss issues. Every session was audio-taped, following acceptable guidelines  ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Braun</Author><Year>2006</Year><RecNum>217</RecNum><DisplayText>(Braun &amp; Clarke, 2006)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>217</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="a0d2ews2b529dueavpcxtx5lep20a0t9atw2">217</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Braun, V.</author><author>Clarke, V.</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Using thematic analysis in psychology</title><secondary-title>Qualitative Research in Psychology</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Qualitative Research in Psychology</full-title></periodical><pages>77-101</pages><volume>3</volume><dates><year>2006</year></dates><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>( HYPERLINK \l "_ENREF_7" \o "Braun, 2006 #217" Braun & Clarke, 2006), with the consent of each participant, and translated and transcribed verbatim prior to coding. At the end of each session, we provided information regarding the support services available for people with mental health needs and their caregivers. The process of data collection stopped when we began to notice repetition of information�almost verbatim�from different study participants. All research assistants took detailed field notes. Data collection and transcription was overseen by the first author who read each transcript to get familiar with the depth and breadth of the data content, inscribe notes on margins of the data book, identify key words, search for more meanings and patterns, and write detailed notes on emerging themes  ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Braun</Author><Year>2006</Year><RecNum>217</RecNum><DisplayText>(Braun &amp; Clarke, 2006; Ryan &amp; Bernard, 2003)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>217</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="a0d2ews2b529dueavpcxtx5lep20a0t9atw2">217</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Braun, V.</author><author>Clarke, V.</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Using thematic analysis in psychology</title><secondary-title>Qualitative Research in Psychology</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Qualitative Research in Psychology</full-title></periodical><pages>77-101</pages><volume>3</volume><dates><year>2006</year></dates><urls></urls></record></Cite><Cite><Author>Ryan</Author><Year>2003</Year><RecNum>194</RecNum><record><rec-number>194</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="a0d2ews2b529dueavpcxtx5lep20a0t9atw2">194</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Ryan, G. W.</author><author>Bernard, H, R.</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Techniques to identify themes</title><secondary-title>Field Methods</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Field Methods</full-title></periodical><pages>85-109</pages><volume>15</volume><number>1</number><dates><year>2003</year></dates><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>( HYPERLINK \l "_ENREF_7" \o "Braun, 2006 #217" Braun & Clarke, 2006;  HYPERLINK \l "_ENREF_41" \o "Ryan, 2003 #194" Ryan & Bernard, 2003). Each member of the research team was required to keenly observe the context of the study population and note salient features. This was necessary to back-up and contextualize the data that was collected.

Ethical Considerations
We obtained ethical and administrative clearances from the Uganda National Council for Science and Technology Committee on the Study of Human Subjects, the administrators of the study districts and the local community leaders. We explained the aims of the study and implications on participants and obtained verbal consent from the community leaders and group members. We assured and accorded the study participants the necessary privacy, anonymity, and confidentiality. We told them of their liberty to withhold information they were uncomfortable to give. We referred those who asked questions requiring therapeutic answers to appropriate professionals for help. We clarified that they were participating in research, which was voluntary and not intended to estimate loss and possible compensation.

Data Analysis
Emerging themes and impressions guided data collection. Analysis and data collection progressed simultaneously. We used a framework approach to data collection and analysis  ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Bryman</Author><Year>1993</Year><RecNum>219</RecNum><DisplayText>(Bryman &amp; Burgess, 1993; Pope, Ziebland, &amp; Mays, 2000)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>219</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="a0d2ews2b529dueavpcxtx5lep20a0t9atw2">219</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Edited Book">28</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Bryman, A.,</author><author>Burgess, R,</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Analyzing qualitative data</title></titles><dates><year>1993</year></dates><publisher>London: Routledge</publisher><urls></urls></record></Cite><Cite><Author>Pope</Author><Year>2000</Year><RecNum>155</RecNum><record><rec-number>155</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="a0d2ews2b529dueavpcxtx5lep20a0t9atw2">155</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Pope, C.</author><author>Ziebland, S.</author><author>Mays, N.</author></authors></contributors><auth-address>Department of Social Medicine, University of Bristol, Bristol BS8 2PR. c.pope@bristol.ac.uk</auth-address><titles><title>Qualitative research in health care. Analysing qualitative data</title><secondary-title>bmj</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>bmj</full-title></periodical><pages>114-6</pages><volume>320</volume><number>7227</number><edition>2000/01/22</edition><keywords><keyword>Data Collection</keyword><keyword>Data Interpretation, Statistical</keyword><keyword>*Health Services Research</keyword><keyword>Humans</keyword><keyword>Observer Variation</keyword><keyword>Research Personnel</keyword><keyword>Software</keyword></keywords><dates><year>2000</year><pub-dates><date>Jan 8</date></pub-dates></dates><isbn>0959-8138 (Print)&#xD;0959-535X (Linking)</isbn><accession-num>10625273</accession-num><work-type>Review</work-type><urls><related-urls><url>http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10625273</url></related-urls></urls><custom2>1117368</custom2><language>eng</language></record></Cite></EndNote>( HYPERLINK \l "_ENREF_10" \o "Bryman, 1993 #219" Bryman & Burgess, 1993;  HYPERLINK \l "_ENREF_38" \o "Pope, 2000 #155" Pope, Ziebland, & Mays, 2000). Even when this approach reflects original accounts and observations, it starts deductively from preset aims and objectives. Coding was approached, in part, with questions that inspired the study and also with an expectation of coming across novel information. By systematically working through the data set, coding progressed from what was available at data collection to assortment into identified patterns  ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Braun</Author><Year>2006</Year><RecNum>217</RecNum><DisplayText>(Braun &amp; Clarke, 2006; Ryan &amp; Bernard, 2003)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>217</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="a0d2ews2b529dueavpcxtx5lep20a0t9atw2">217</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Braun, V.</author><author>Clarke, V.</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Using thematic analysis in psychology</title><secondary-title>Qualitative Research in Psychology</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Qualitative Research in Psychology</full-title></periodical><pages>77-101</pages><volume>3</volume><dates><year>2006</year></dates><urls></urls></record></Cite><Cite><Author>Ryan</Author><Year>2003</Year><RecNum>194</RecNum><record><rec-number>194</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="a0d2ews2b529dueavpcxtx5lep20a0t9atw2">194</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Ryan, G. W.</author><author>Bernard, H, R.</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Techniques to identify themes</title><secondary-title>Field Methods</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Field Methods</full-title></periodical><pages>85-109</pages><volume>15</volume><number>1</number><dates><year>2003</year></dates><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>( HYPERLINK \l "_ENREF_7" \o "Braun, 2006 #217" Braun & Clarke, 2006;  HYPERLINK \l "_ENREF_41" \o "Ryan, 2003 #194" Ryan & Bernard, 2003). After identifying several codes, we matched them with comparable �chunks� of data extracts. Examples of codes identified included; �common life adversities like; loss of life, impoverishment, traumatisation�; �forms of life adversity like isolation, self-doubt, fatalism, vengefulness, and alcohol abuse�; maladaptive consequences of life adversity like; �heightened sexual promiscuity and sex pervasion�; �apprehension, pervasive fear, uncertainty and learned helplessness�; �disrupted education, famine and domestic violence�; �disrespect of authority and suspiciousness�; adaptive coping through; �re-skilling, seeking counselling, becoming over-religious, and endurance�; and �resilience, prayerfulness, and social support� and many others. After generating a list of codes and collating them with data extracts, we sorted them into potential sub-themes and themes. Observed differences and similarities within the data aided in assigning different data segments to different tentative themes.

We employed thematic analysis for the contents of the focus group discussions  ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Boyatzis</Author><Year>1998</Year><RecNum>216</RecNum><DisplayText>(Boyatzis, 1998; Braun &amp; Clarke, 2006)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>216</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="a0d2ews2b529dueavpcxtx5lep20a0t9atw2">216</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Book">6</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Boyatzis, R</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Transforming qualitative information: Thematic analysis and code development</title></titles><dates><year>1998</year></dates><pub-location>Thousand Oaks, CA</pub-location><publisher>Sage</publisher><urls></urls></record></Cite><Cite><Author>Braun</Author><Year>2006</Year><RecNum>217</RecNum><record><rec-number>217</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="a0d2ews2b529dueavpcxtx5lep20a0t9atw2">217</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Braun, V.</author><author>Clarke, V.</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Using thematic analysis in psychology</title><secondary-title>Qualitative Research in Psychology</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Qualitative Research in Psychology</full-title></periodical><pages>77-101</pages><volume>3</volume><dates><year>2006</year></dates><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>( HYPERLINK \l "_ENREF_6" \o "Boyatzis, 1998 #216" Boyatzis, 1998;  HYPERLINK \l "_ENREF_7" \o "Braun, 2006 #217" Braun & Clarke, 2006). Notes and open codes were generated and organized manually, and similar codes were grouped into categories. Through constant comparison, emergent themes, sub-themes, and data extracts coded were identified. We identified and discussed a hierarchical scheme of specific themes, issues, and problems that emerged from the data. Themes that recurred with high frequency and themes with strong emotional content received higher codes. We reached consensus regarding any disagreements in coding through discussion. Though rigor was not enhanced by multiple coding, the analysis was improved by constant, independent comparison with the transcripts by all authors  ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Glasser</Author><Year>1967</Year><RecNum>171</RecNum><DisplayText>(Glasser &amp; Strauss, 1967)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>171</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="a0d2ews2b529dueavpcxtx5lep20a0t9atw2">171</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Book">6</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Glasser, B,</author><author>Strauss, A,</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>The discovery of grounded theory: Strategies for qualitative research</title></titles><dates><year>1967</year></dates><publisher>Chicago, IL: Aldine</publisher><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>( HYPERLINK \l "_ENREF_17" \o "Glasser, 1967 #171" Glasser & Strauss, 1967).

Bearing in mind the objectives of the study, theory and literature; data content, study context and underlying clusters of concepts, and relationships between codes, themes; different levels of themes were noted  ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Ryan</Author><Year>2003</Year><RecNum>194</RecNum><DisplayText>(Ryan &amp; Bernard, 2003)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>194</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="a0d2ews2b529dueavpcxtx5lep20a0t9atw2">194</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Ryan, G. W.</author><author>Bernard, H, R.</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Techniques to identify themes</title><secondary-title>Field Methods</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Field Methods</full-title></periodical><pages>85-109</pages><volume>15</volume><number>1</number><dates><year>2003</year></dates><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>( HYPERLINK \l "_ENREF_41" \o "Ryan, 2003 #194" Ryan & Bernard, 2003). Thereafter, more review and refinement was conducted to ensure coherent patterns  ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Braun</Author><Year>2006</Year><RecNum>217</RecNum><DisplayText>(Braun &amp; Clarke, 2006)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>217</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="a0d2ews2b529dueavpcxtx5lep20a0t9atw2">217</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Braun, V.</author><author>Clarke, V.</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Using thematic analysis in psychology</title><secondary-title>Qualitative Research in Psychology</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Qualitative Research in Psychology</full-title></periodical><pages>77-101</pages><volume>3</volume><dates><year>2006</year></dates><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>( HYPERLINK \l "_ENREF_7" \o "Braun, 2006 #217" Braun & Clarke, 2006). The final themes were; (i) life adversity experienced following exposure to conflict, (ii) forms of life adversity experienced, (iii) adaptive coping approaches with life adversity, (iv) maladaptive coping strategies with life adversity and (v) consequences of maladaptive coping. These themes are discussed in the results section. We used illuminating verbatim quotations from participants to illustrate major findings.

Results
At the time of this study, resettlement activities had not been accomplished and the majority of participants still lived in Internally Displaced Peoples� (IDP) camps. Some of the participants had left IDP camps and resettled in their original villages. Some Aid Agencies were still active in giving residual support. However, most of the Aid Agencies had left soon after the conflicts waned. Community residents still feared that they could be invaded by neighbouring cattle rustlers anytime. The outcome of our analysis and interpretation of findings are the social phenomena summarised in the final themes.

Life Adversity Experienced Following Exposure to Conflict
Evidently, many people had experienced multiple losses. FGD participants described their loss of social connectedness and self-belief. Self-doubt, a consequence of life adversity seemed to be pervasive. Due to loss, a number of them had not withdrawn from social life but also experienced persistent apprehension. Many of them had worries and were fatalistic. Some of them harboured vengeful thoughts, ill-intentions to pilfer property and suicidal ideas. Psychological trauma in the population manifested itself in excessive use of alcohol. This was attributed to the wanton loss of life, sexual molestation and loss of property following forceful congregation of people in IDP camps as illustrated by an FGD of male youths aged 15 - 24 years:
�. . . Many people were killed. This lead to fear and tension in the population . . . people were forced into IDP camps . . . This was traumatic . . . because one would see his/her own people being murdered, raped and starved . . . shops looted . . . people were abducted and some have not returned to their homes. These left communities in distress . . . This forced our elders and even children into heavy alcohol drinking. This has brought poverty . . . The IDP camp life into which people were forced eroded people�s culture; traditional values and beliefs were lost . . .�

There was wanton loss of not only life but trust, respect, decency, and property as illustrated by FGDs of male youths aged 15 - 24 years and females aged 24 - 35 years:
�. . .parents started to publically use obscene and foul language in presence of their children . . . sexual decency and respect disappeared because parents shared living space with children in small grass-thatched huts in IDP camps . . .�

�. . . Children lost trust and respect for their parents . . . most of children became unruly. Unwanted pregnancies became the order of the day . . . IDP camp life increased vulnerability to famine, HIV/AIDS and immorality . . .�

The unending conflicts also impoverished people. Sustaining livelihood became difficult since a number of families struggled to meet basic life necessities. The long-held cultural tradition of storing food in anticipation of famine was forgotten. The choice of domestic animals to rear changed from the culturally decent cattle herding to the hitherto culturally despised piggery. Stretching back to when conflicts were at their peak, earning an income for most people shrank. To many people, money did not only become difficult to get but to retain as illustrated by two FGDs of females aged 35 years from two sub-counties; 
�. . . things have changed . . . all the pride people used to have is gone . . . some families can not meet the basic needs of life e.g. food. We lost our tradition of storing food for future use during famine . . . even the choice of domestic animals to rear has changed from cows, goats and sheep to pigs which are associated with infecting our people with jiggers. . .�

�. . . we used to get much money through cows . . . but now, that is not there . . . earning has become very low because with wars and displacement, money became difficult to get . . . People used to grow and sell cotton . . . the tradition here was that people used to work together communally . . . but now; people are no longer united . . . when we were gathered in IDP camps, norms and traditions were lost . . . today, you go to a neighbour to borrow something  but you do not get it even when it is there . . .�

Forms of Life Adversity Experienced
By and large, people experienced socio-economic, cultural and psychosocial adversities. Socio-economically, adversity took the form of disrupted education, food insecurity, children dropping out of school and domestic violence. Culturally, adversity took the form of erosion of traditional values, child marriages, suspiciousness and loss of zeal for productive work. Psychosocial consequences of adversity included; apprehension, uncertainty, distress and despair. A number of people had taken to withdrawal from the rest of society to chronic worrying as demonstrated below: 
�. . . Many people usually isolate themselves from other people and stay alone most times . . . Others usually drop out of school due to failure to afford school fees or scholastic materials. Others worry a lot and have bad thoughts like thinking and planning thefts, suicidal thoughts or attributing whatever bad happens to witchcraft . . . others commit suicide.� (Males aged range of 15-24 years).

Suffice to say that some people often had thoughts of committing crime; others joined armed forces to avenge their losses they had encountered while others took to alcohol abuse: 
 �. . . victims of life adversity and war ended up joining bad peer groups and engaging in bad habits like stealing, others ended up as street children in towns, . . . while others ended up joining armed forces because they were driven by the desire for revenge on those who did bad to them. . .� (FGD of Males aged 24 -35 years).

�. . . what happens to most people here is that they lack food . . . in fact, they are very hungry most of the time. They are sickly because they feed poorly . . . some actually have thoughts of stealing other people�s food and property. Others enrol in the armed forces to earn a living . . . those who drink alcohol excessively live in isolation and many are suicidal . . .� (FGD of in-school youths).

Adaptive Coping Approaches with Life Adversity
Some study participants believed in their resilience. This was attributed to having friends, relatives and family members to turn during times of adversity. To relieve their life stress, some of them were active in recreational activities as illustrated below:
. . . there are some people that are strong-hearted . . . they were able to persevere during wartime . . . they  take advice from friends, relatives and family members. They are those who are prayerful because with God, every thing is possible . . .  many of them have joined support group . . . others participate in recreational activities which relieves stress . . . others are hard working and participate in income generating activities like farming, animal rearing and crop cultivation . . .� (FGD of male in-school youths).

In spite of the adverse adversities encountered during conflict, resilience seemed to be apparent in the way some people lived. Other than having enduring self-pity, a number of them sought counselling and joined self-help financial rotational savings� schemes as illustrated below: 
�. . . people in our community have actually managed to cope by engaging in income generating activities like making charcoal, brewing local alcohol and cutting grass; all for sale . . . Most of them are casual labourers . . . people also form self help groups where members contribute money that is given to one person monthly. This arrangement continues in a cycle until every member is covered. . .� (Female youths aged 24 � 35 years).   

�. . . we struggle by hiring our labour . . . Some of us have formed groups to help each other that lend out money to members . . . Some times, it�s the NGOs that have come in to help like for the case of famine, the NGOs have given out food items and other house hold items . . .  people living with HIV receive counselling on self protection, antiretroviral therapy, protecting others and positive living . . .� (Females aged over 35 years).

Seeking comfort in sexual intimacy as people wade through post-conflict challenges was reported to be common. This could be a �double-edged sword�. The practice could potentially compromise peoples� sexual and reproductive health. On the other hand, it could be a good coping mechanism for people overwhelmed with life adversity since it is an avenue for emotional and physical bonding. Notwithstanding its consequences, comfort in sexual intimacy in the context of marriage stood out as a way to cope with challenges like; loss of meaning in life, worthlessness and hopelessness as illustrated by out-of-school female youths:
�. . . often, many of us are overcome by life challenges and we begin thinking of all possible avenues to die . . . it is at such times that we think of resorting to marriage to console ourselves . . . Sometimes, we resort to having sex [being sexually intimate] as the only alternative way to comfort ourselves . . .�

Secondly, coping well with adversity seemed to be influenced by divine beliefs. People that were prayerful demonstrated hope and resilience. Involvement in religious activities was synonymous with accessing on-going counselling. Religious congregations were appreciated as initiators and sustainers of self-help therapeutic support groups. An FGD of females aged 35 years and above observed that; �. . . the church advises and counsels us . . . we are able to get prayers from fellow Christians . . ., the church gives scholastic material, food and clothes . . .�. 
�. . . our faith has helped . . . prayer always gives us hope. Participating in church activities . . . helps school-going youths to get sponsorships from church-based organisations . . . these organisations also help in counselling families that are at the verge of being broken by domestic violence . . .� (FGD of females aged 24 -35 years). 

�. . . living prayerful lives has helped people that we consider to be hardworking . . . this is because through their church membership, many people have joined productive groups and associations to help them make ends meet . . . through preaching, the church advises and comforts people. Churches also give on-going counselling to many of us . . . they share food and clothing with the needy . . . they provide emotional support. . .� (FGD of females in-school female youths).

Ultimately, social support was an essential aspect of adaptive coping. Friends and supportive family members often gave counsel while others were available to give advice on the way forward. Others shared tangible material things with those that had adjustment challenges. These material things included; food and shelter as illustrated by an FGD of females aged 24 -35 years; �. . . some friends have been counselling us . . . others have always given us advice�. In-school youths noted that �. . . some of us lost our parents but we had friends . . . they kept counselling us . . . not all friends were good but many gave positive advice . . .�

Maladaptive Coping Strategies with Life Adversity
Not all people coped well with adversity associated with conflict experiences. A number of FGD participants had self-doubt, fatalism and felt stigma. Mental health problems manifesting as pervasive fear, uncertainty, alcohol abuse, despair and learned helplessness were common in communities. For instance, some people reportedly looked at educating their children as a waste of time as illustrated: 
�. . . for some people living with HIV, they often isolate themselves and even when they want to associate, some are avoided by the rest of society . . . people have generally lost hope and look at education as a waste of time . . . they argue that even if they send the children to school, these children won�t go far. Others don�t fear HIV any more claiming that it came to kill people and not animals. . .� (Males aged 24 -35 years).

�. . . children have become wild because of the internal displacement in which we lived for a long time . . . they is tension that  anything can happen any time . . . our education has been affected . . . the schools are located  far away from where most people live . . . many children fear to move to such schools because of the fear that they may be abducted. . .� (Females aged over 35 years).

Some consequences of life adversity took the form of disrespect for authority and suspiciousness. In an attempt to cope, FGD participants agreed that their traditional values had been eroded. For instance, there was an upsurge in social ills like early marriages of the girl child and dishonesty. Traditional values like respect for parents and use of decent language had reportedly got lost. A number of FGD participants reported that some people hesitant refused to go back to their home villages due to loss of trust in one another as illustrated below:
� . . . many children are disrespecting parents, parents use obscene and foul language in front of children, sex is no longer respected because many people had got used to sharing small huts with their children in IDP camps . . .these days, parents have resorted to forcefully marrying off their daughters at an early age due to persistent poverty so as to earn bride wealth . . . this has lead to high rates of mostly girls dropping out of schools. . .� (Males aged 15 - 24 years).

� . . . children have lost trust and respect for parents . . . it is common to find children using abusive words towards parents . . .  in fact, most children misinterpret their rights and they are unruly . . . unwanted pregnancies and ultimately abortions are common . . . such a lifestyle has made many people to be vulnerable to HIV/AIDS . . .� (Females aged 24 - 35 years).

Consequences of Maladaptive Coping
For FGD participants who perceived that coping with adversity was maladaptive were more likely to admit involvement in HRSB. Males thought that the over-concentration of many people in IDP camps resulted in many evils like promiscuity, defilement, and sex in exchange for gifts. Male youths aged 15 - 24 years noted that �. . . some people living with HIV are spreading the virus . . . there�s no respect for sex . . . the search for money has spoilt our people . . .� Other illustrations are in quotations below;
�. . . people now look at their daughters as assets to redeem them from poverty . . . that is why they marry them off at a young age . . .  Some people are seeking for short cuts to get riches . . .� (Males aged 24 to 35 years in sub-county A)

 � . . . the number of school drop-outs has increased since many children are rushing to get married . . . this is because IDP camp life exposed them to sex very early. . .� (Females ages 35 years and above)

Maladaptive coping with adversity also took the form of food insecurity and domestic violence. Socio-economic and cultural readjustments following exposure to conflict seemed to be littered with misunderstandings leading to domestic violence and vulnerability to food scarcity as illustrated below:
�. . .we see a lot of misunderstandings in families leading to problems like domestic violence, marital rape and rumour mongering . . . these situations make many of us to be vulnerable to HIV/AIDS . . .� (Males aged 24  - 35 years)

�. . . our people used to believe in themselves, this has been changed . . . life has become difficult . . . some families can not meet the basic needs of life like food . . . the situation has of late been worsened by floods that made our crops to rot hence famine . . . during displacement, we lost our age-old tradition of storing food for future use . . .� (Females aged above 35 years).

Discussion
Using a qualitative approach, we set out to explore coping with life adversity in a post-conflict society, strategies adopted and consequences of these strategies. The findings do not only profile the adversities experienced following exposure to conflict but also the peoples� resilience and coping. This study emphasizes the observation that mental and emotional impact of trauma on people who undergo violent conflicts is cross-culturally varied. The mental health problems reported in the FGD narratives were expressed in terms of apprehension, fear, uncertainty, learned helplessness, distress, despair, alcohol use, worries, and rumination about suicide, and general lethargy. The western categorical psychiatric diagnoses of PTSD, depression, anxiety and many others barely come out with these narratives. Similar to other research, socio-cultural uniqueness seems to be vital in explaining and understanding complex human experiences  ADDIN EN.CITE  ADDIN EN.CITE.DATA ( HYPERLINK \l "_ENREF_8" \o "Bronfenbrenner, 1979 #218" Bronfenbrenner, 1979;  HYPERLINK \l "_ENREF_12" \o "de Jong, 2002 #224" de Jong & van Ommeren, 2002;  HYPERLINK \l "_ENREF_15" \o "Foster, 2000 #15" Foster & Williamson, 2000). 

While psycho-social distress is most often linked to witnessing or experience of traumatic events like torture, rape or killing, the reviewed literature suggests that it may also result from a general erosion of social identities and the inability to perform one�s social roles properly  ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Allen</Author><Year>1996</Year><RecNum>135</RecNum><DisplayText>(B. Allen, 1996)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>135</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="a0d2ews2b529dueavpcxtx5lep20a0t9atw2">135</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Book">6</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Allen, B.</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Rape warfare</title></titles><dates><year>1996</year></dates><pub-location>Minneapolis</pub-location><publisher>University of Minnesota Press</publisher><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>( HYPERLINK \l "_ENREF_1" \o "Allen, 1996 #135" B. Allen, 1996). To overcome adversity, study participants described how they lost their social connectedness and self-belief. Many looked to aid agencies for support. From study participants� revelations, self-doubt seemed to be pervasive. Due to loss of social connectedness, a number of them appeared not only have withdrawn from social life but to experience persistent apprehension. It is known that rebuilding a society after violent conflicts depends upon the healing, reconnection and empowerment of survivors. Individuals who have experienced traumatic violent conflicts often feel a sense of destroyed safety and trust  ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>McDonald</Author><Year>2010</Year><RecNum>226</RecNum><DisplayText>(McDonald, 2010)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>226</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="a0d2ews2b529dueavpcxtx5lep20a0t9atw2">226</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Electronic Book">44</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>McDonald, L.</author></authors><secondary-authors><author>Martz, E.</author></secondary-authors></contributors><titles><title>Psychosocial Rehabilitation of Civilians in Conflict-Affected Settings</title><secondary-title>Trauma Rehabilitation After War and Conflict: Community and Individual Perspectives</secondary-title></titles><dates><year>2010</year></dates><pub-location>Springer New York Dordrecht Heidelberg London</pub-location><publisher>Springer</publisher><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>( HYPERLINK \l "_ENREF_28" \o "McDonald, 2010 #226" McDonald, 2010). 

One of the consequences of adversity experienced following exposure to conflict was excessive use of alcohol. Although use of alcohol is associated with poverty  ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Spiegel</Author><Year>2004</Year><RecNum>197</RecNum><DisplayText>(Spiegel &amp; Nankoe, 2004)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>197</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="a0d2ews2b529dueavpcxtx5lep20a0t9atw2">197</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Spiegel, P. B,</author><author>Nankoe, A,</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>UNHCR, HIV/AIDS and Refugees: Lessons Learned</title><secondary-title>Forced Migration Review</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Forced Migration Review</full-title></periodical><pages>21-23</pages><volume>19</volume><dates><year>2004</year></dates><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>( HYPERLINK \l "_ENREF_46" \o "Spiegel, 2004 #197" Spiegel & Nankoe, 2004), it is common for people experiencing life adversity to cope by using it, often times to the detriment of their lives. Study participants indicated that many of them were excessively using alcohol to cope with the loss of life, loss of property, forceful concentration in IDP camps and loss life opportunities, trust, respect and decency. The unending conflicts also impoverished people. Sustaining livelihood became difficult since a number of families in the study communities failed to meet basic life necessities, a fact that has already been described  ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Spiegel</Author><Year>2004</Year><RecNum>197</RecNum><DisplayText>(Spiegel &amp; Nankoe, 2004)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>197</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="a0d2ews2b529dueavpcxtx5lep20a0t9atw2">197</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Spiegel, P. B,</author><author>Nankoe, A,</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>UNHCR, HIV/AIDS and Refugees: Lessons Learned</title><secondary-title>Forced Migration Review</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Forced Migration Review</full-title></periodical><pages>21-23</pages><volume>19</volume><dates><year>2004</year></dates><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>( HYPERLINK \l "_ENREF_46" \o "Spiegel, 2004 #197" Spiegel & Nankoe, 2004). 

Life adversity also took the form of disrupted education, food insecurity, children dropping out of school and domestic violence. Culturally, it took the form of erosion of traditional values, child marriages, and loss of zeal for productive work which exacerbated poverty. The long-held cultural tradition of food storage in anticipation of famine disappeared. The choice about domestic animals to rear was noted to have metamorphosed from decent animal husbandry like cattle herding to the hitherto culturally despised piggery. This is keeping with the view that vulnerabilities are known to impact on the capacity to cope and poverty is known to be both a vulnerability and a coping factor since it many reduce the capacity to seek refugee  ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Okello</Author><Year>2006</Year><RecNum>185</RecNum><DisplayText>(Okello &amp; Ekblad, 2006)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>185</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="a0d2ews2b529dueavpcxtx5lep20a0t9atw2">185</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Okello, E. S.</author><author>Ekblad, S.</author></authors></contributors><auth-address>Makerere University, Uganda. elly@med.mak.ac.ug</auth-address><titles><title>Lay concepts of depression among the Baganda of Uganda: a pilot study</title><secondary-title>Transcult Psychiatry</secondary-title><alt-title>Transcultural psychiatry</alt-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Transcult Psychiatry</full-title><abbr-1>Transcultural psychiatry</abbr-1></periodical><alt-periodical><full-title>Transcult Psychiatry</full-title><abbr-1>Transcultural psychiatry</abbr-1></alt-periodical><pages>287-313</pages><volume>43</volume><number>2</number><keywords><keyword>Adult</keyword><keyword>Attitude/*ethnology</keyword><keyword>Bipolar Disorder/diagnosis/*ethnology/*psychology</keyword><keyword>Depression/diagnosis/*ethnology/*psychology</keyword><keyword>Female</keyword><keyword>Humans</keyword><keyword>Male</keyword><keyword>Pilot Projects</keyword><keyword>Uganda</keyword></keywords><dates><year>2006</year><pub-dates><date>Jun</date></pub-dates></dates><isbn>1363-4615 (Print)</isbn><accession-num>16893877</accession-num><urls><related-urls><url>http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&amp;db=PubMed&amp;dopt=Citation&amp;list_uids=16893877 </url></related-urls></urls><language>eng</language></record></Cite></EndNote>( HYPERLINK \l "_ENREF_33" \o "Okello, 2006 #185" Okello & Ekblad, 2006). 

Living through war and conflict is known to be associated with positive and negative consequences. In the study, other than the mental and psychosocial problems, some people developed hardiness, endurance and resilience through strengthened social support networks, counselling and self-help initiatives. The way people respond after going through traumatic experiences associated with war or conflict seems not to be always disintegration, but also learning and resilience  ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Mancini</Author><Year>2006</Year><RecNum>227</RecNum><DisplayText>(Mancini &amp; Bonanno, 2006)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>227</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="a0d2ews2b529dueavpcxtx5lep20a0t9atw2">227</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Mancini, A. D.</author><author>Bonanno, G. A.</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Resilience in the face of potential trauma: clinical practices and illustrations</title><secondary-title>Journal of clinical psychology</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Journal of clinical psychology</full-title></periodical><pages>971-85. Epub 2006/05/16.</pages><volume>62</volume><number>8</number><dates><year>2006</year></dates><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>( HYPERLINK \l "_ENREF_26" \o "Mancini, 2006 #227" Mancini & Bonanno, 2006). It is important to recognize the positivity associated with traumatic events and not to always down-play the ability of people to recover well. As noted in another study, appreciation of the inherent resilience of individuals and society is essential to understand and to work with any traumatized person in particular and society in general  ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Rajkumar</Author><Year>2008</Year><RecNum>190</RecNum><DisplayText>(Rajkumar et al., 2008)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>190</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="a0d2ews2b529dueavpcxtx5lep20a0t9atw2">190</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Rajkumar, A. P.</author><author>Premkumar, T. S.</author><author>Tharyan, P.</author></authors></contributors><auth-address>Department of Psychiatry, Christian Medical College, Bagayam, Vellore 632002, Tamil Nadu, India. antoprajkumar@cmvellore.ac.in</auth-address><titles><title>Coping with the Asian tsunami: perspectives from Tamil Nadu, India on the determinants of resilience in the face of adversity</title><secondary-title>Soc Sci Med</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Soc Sci Med</full-title></periodical><pages>844-53</pages><volume>67</volume><number>5</number><edition>2008/06/20</edition><keywords><keyword>*Adaptation, Psychological</keyword><keyword>Asia</keyword><keyword>*Disasters</keyword><keyword>Female</keyword><keyword>Focus Groups</keyword><keyword>Grief</keyword><keyword>Humans</keyword><keyword>India</keyword><keyword>Male</keyword><keyword>Parents/psychology</keyword><keyword>Sociology, Medical</keyword><keyword>Spirituality</keyword><keyword>Stress Disorders, Post-Traumatic/psychology</keyword><keyword>Stress, Psychological/*psychology</keyword><keyword>Survivors/*psychology</keyword><keyword>*Tidal Waves</keyword></keywords><dates><year>2008</year><pub-dates><date>Sep</date></pub-dates></dates><isbn>0277-9536 (Print)&#xD;0277-9536 (Linking)</isbn><accession-num>18562066</accession-num><work-type>Research Support, Non-U.S. Gov&apos;t</work-type><urls><related-urls><url>http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18562066</url></related-urls></urls><electronic-resource-num>10.1016/j.socscimed.2008.05.014</electronic-resource-num><language>eng</language></record></Cite></EndNote>( HYPERLINK \l "_ENREF_39" \o "Rajkumar, 2008 #190" Rajkumar et al., 2008).

It is also important to note that trauma does not occur in a social vacuum, and cannot heal without supportive social interactions. Through utilization of social support networks and by turning to deeply held spiritual and religious beliefs, the population in this study appears to have been able to cope with adversity following a conflict era. It is important to note that faith, spirituality and religion are known modifiers of severity and presentation of emotional reactions following a traumatic experience  ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Rajkumar</Author><Year>2008</Year><RecNum>190</RecNum><DisplayText>(Rajkumar et al., 2008)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>190</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="a0d2ews2b529dueavpcxtx5lep20a0t9atw2">190</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Rajkumar, A. P.</author><author>Premkumar, T. S.</author><author>Tharyan, P.</author></authors></contributors><auth-address>Department of Psychiatry, Christian Medical College, Bagayam, Vellore 632002, Tamil Nadu, India. antoprajkumar@cmvellore.ac.in</auth-address><titles><title>Coping with the Asian tsunami: perspectives from Tamil Nadu, India on the determinants of resilience in the face of adversity</title><secondary-title>Soc Sci Med</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Soc Sci Med</full-title></periodical><pages>844-53</pages><volume>67</volume><number>5</number><edition>2008/06/20</edition><keywords><keyword>*Adaptation, Psychological</keyword><keyword>Asia</keyword><keyword>*Disasters</keyword><keyword>Female</keyword><keyword>Focus Groups</keyword><keyword>Grief</keyword><keyword>Humans</keyword><keyword>India</keyword><keyword>Male</keyword><keyword>Parents/psychology</keyword><keyword>Sociology, Medical</keyword><keyword>Spirituality</keyword><keyword>Stress Disorders, Post-Traumatic/psychology</keyword><keyword>Stress, Psychological/*psychology</keyword><keyword>Survivors/*psychology</keyword><keyword>*Tidal Waves</keyword></keywords><dates><year>2008</year><pub-dates><date>Sep</date></pub-dates></dates><isbn>0277-9536 (Print)&#xD;0277-9536 (Linking)</isbn><accession-num>18562066</accession-num><work-type>Research Support, Non-U.S. Gov&apos;t</work-type><urls><related-urls><url>http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18562066</url></related-urls></urls><electronic-resource-num>10.1016/j.socscimed.2008.05.014</electronic-resource-num><language>eng</language></record></Cite></EndNote>( HYPERLINK \l "_ENREF_39" \o "Rajkumar, 2008 #190" Rajkumar et al., 2008).

In the study, adaptive coping depended on religiosity and faith. The people who were prayerful were more hopeful and resilient. This finding is consistent with other research which posits that religious coping affects well-being by providing a feeling of comfort, sense of control, and connectedness to self and others  ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Meisenhelder</Author><Year>2002</Year><RecNum>230</RecNum><DisplayText>(Meisenhelder, 2002)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>230</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="a0d2ews2b529dueavpcxtx5lep20a0t9atw2">230</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Meisenhelder, J. B.</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Terrorism, posttraumatic stress, and religious coping</title><secondary-title>Issues in Mental Health Nursing</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Issues in Mental Health Nursing</full-title></periodical><pages>771�782</pages><volume>23</volume><dates><year>2002</year></dates><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>( HYPERLINK \l "_ENREF_29" \o "Meisenhelder, 2002 #230" Meisenhelder, 2002). More research goes on to indicate that religious coping is linked to lower levels of depression and other forms of psychological distress, including PTSD  ADDIN EN.CITE  ADDIN EN.CITE.DATA ( HYPERLINK \l "_ENREF_37" \o "Pope, 1995 #154" C. Pope & N. Mays, 1995;  HYPERLINK \l "_ENREF_43" \o "Samuels, 2007 #196" Samuels, Proudlock, Harvey, & Bergmann, 2007;  HYPERLINK \l "_ENREF_49" \o "Tix, 1998 #228" Tix & Frazier, 1998;  HYPERLINK \l "_ENREF_51" \o "Uganda AIDS Commission, March 2009 #201" Uganda AIDS Commission, March 2009), and better physical health  ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Pargament</Author><Year>1990</Year><RecNum>229</RecNum><DisplayText>(Pargament et al., 1990)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>229</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="a0d2ews2b529dueavpcxtx5lep20a0t9atw2">229</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Pargament, K. I.</author><author>Ensing, D. S.</author><author>Falgout, K.</author><author>Olsen, H.</author><author>Reilly, B.</author><author>Van Haitsma, K.</author><author>Warren, R.</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>God help me: Religious coping efforts as predictors of the outcomes to significant negative life events</title><secondary-title>American Journal of Community Psychology</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>American Journal of Community Psychology</full-title></periodical><pages>793�823</pages><volume>18</volume><dates><year>1990</year></dates><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>( HYPERLINK \l "_ENREF_34" \o "Pargament, 1990 #229" Pargament et al., 1990). On the other hand, negative religious coping, which involves the perception that God has abandoned or punished an individual  ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Meisenhelder</Author><Year>2002</Year><RecNum>230</RecNum><DisplayText>(Meisenhelder, 2002)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>230</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="a0d2ews2b529dueavpcxtx5lep20a0t9atw2">230</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Meisenhelder, J. B.</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Terrorism, posttraumatic stress, and religious coping</title><secondary-title>Issues in Mental Health Nursing</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Issues in Mental Health Nursing</full-title></periodical><pages>771�782</pages><volume>23</volume><dates><year>2002</year></dates><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>( HYPERLINK \l "_ENREF_29" \o "Meisenhelder, 2002 #230" Meisenhelder, 2002), has been found to be associated with higher depression and poorer mental health  ADDIN EN.CITE  ADDIN EN.CITE.DATA ( HYPERLINK \l "_ENREF_13" \o "Derluyn, 2004 #221" Derluyn, Broekaert, Schuyten, & Temmerman, 2004;  HYPERLINK \l "_ENREF_36" \o "Pope, 1995 #87" C Pope & N Mays, 1995;  HYPERLINK \l "_ENREF_43" \o "Samuels, 2007 #196" Samuels et al., 2007). In this study, religiosity seemed to be associated with access to counselling services. Religious groups also appreciated initiated and sustained self-help support groups.

Good friends and supportive family members were reported to often give counsel while others were known to often be available to give advice. Others were known to often share tangible things like food and shelter with others facing adjustment challenges. It is widely acknowledged that social support and connection are critical to recovery from trauma  ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Herman</Author><Year>1997</Year><RecNum>231</RecNum><DisplayText>(Herman, 1997)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>231</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="a0d2ews2b529dueavpcxtx5lep20a0t9atw2">231</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Book">6</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Herman, J. L.</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Trauma and recovery. Art of Mentoring Series</title></titles><dates><year>1997</year></dates><pub-location>New York</pub-location><publisher>Basic Books</publisher><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>( HYPERLINK \l "_ENREF_20" \o "Herman, 1997 #231" Herman, 1997). Notwithstanding the adversity, many participants were hardy, strong-hearted and able to maintain resilience because of friends, relatives and family members. It is known that social support is sustained and propagated through sharing of trauma stories as well as activities aimed at restoring normalcy, notably; sports, visitations, education and training  ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>McDonald</Author><Year>2010</Year><RecNum>226</RecNum><DisplayText>(McDonald, 2010)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>226</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="a0d2ews2b529dueavpcxtx5lep20a0t9atw2">226</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Electronic Book">44</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>McDonald, L.</author></authors><secondary-authors><author>Martz, E.</author></secondary-authors></contributors><titles><title>Psychosocial Rehabilitation of Civilians in Conflict-Affected Settings</title><secondary-title>Trauma Rehabilitation After War and Conflict: Community and Individual Perspectives</secondary-title></titles><dates><year>2010</year></dates><pub-location>Springer New York Dordrecht Heidelberg London</pub-location><publisher>Springer</publisher><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>( HYPERLINK \l "_ENREF_28" \o "McDonald, 2010 #226" McDonald, 2010).

Finding solace is sexual intimacy was one way study participants reported as a coping mechanism with adversity. Intimacy has been described as a multidimensional concept consisting of the ability to trust one another, share thoughts and feelings, and engage in a relationship involving friendship and sexuality  ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Schaefer</Author><Year>1981</Year><RecNum>232</RecNum><DisplayText>(Schaefer &amp; Olson, 1981)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>232</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="a0d2ews2b529dueavpcxtx5lep20a0t9atw2">232</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Schaefer, M. T.</author><author>Olson, D. H.</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Assessing intimacy: The PAIR inventory</title><secondary-title>Journal of Marital and Family Therapy</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Journal of Marital and Family Therapy</full-title></periodical><pages>47�60</pages><volume>7</volume><dates><year>1981</year></dates><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>( HYPERLINK \l "_ENREF_44" \o "Schaefer, 1981 #232" Schaefer & Olson, 1981). In another study, intimacy is presented as the ability to be sensitive and aware of each other�s psychological, emotional, physical, operational, social and spiritual needs  ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Dutton</Author><Year>2006</Year><RecNum>222</RecNum><DisplayText>(Dutton et al., 2006)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>222</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="a0d2ews2b529dueavpcxtx5lep20a0t9atw2">222</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Dutton, M. A,</author><author>Green, B. L,</author><author>Kaltman, S. I,</author><author>Roesch, D. M,</author><author>Zeffiro, T. Z,</author><author>Krause, E. D,</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Intimate Partner Violence, PTSD, and Adverse Health Outcomes</title><secondary-title>Journal of Interpersonal Violence</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Journal of Interpersonal Violence</full-title></periodical><pages>955-968</pages><volume>21</volume><number>7</number><dates><year>2006</year></dates><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>( HYPERLINK \l "_ENREF_14" \o "Dutton, 2006 #222" Dutton et al., 2006). In our study, sexual intimacy was identified as a coping mechanism because of its potential in fostering emotional and physical bonding. This is consistent with another study that found marital intimacy to be positively associated with both sexual satisfaction and dyadic adjustment. Sexual activity was thought to bear meaning in the context of humiliation, fear, pain, and brutality for highly war-traumatized individuals. This related study concluded that marital intimacy can serve as a rebuilding bridge of trust and understanding over the deleterious impact of captivity and posttraumatic  symptomatology  ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Zerach</Author><Year>2012</Year><RecNum>233</RecNum><DisplayText>(Zerach, Anat, Solomon, &amp; Heruti, 2012)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>233</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="a0d2ews2b529dueavpcxtx5lep20a0t9atw2">233</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Zerach, G.</author><author>Anat, B. D.</author><author>Solomon, Z.</author><author>Heruti, R.</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Posttraumatic Symptoms, Marital Intimacy, Dyadic Adjustment, and Sexual Satisfaction among Ex-Prisoners of War</title><secondary-title>Journal of Sexual Medicine</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Journal of Sexual Medicine</full-title></periodical><pages>2739�2749</pages><volume>7</volume><dates><year>2012</year></dates><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>( HYPERLINK \l "_ENREF_54" \o "Zerach, 2012 #233" Zerach, Anat, Solomon, & Heruti, 2012). However, seeking comfort in indiscriminate sexual intimacy could potentially compromise sexual and reproductive health, an assertion corroborated by other past research  ADDIN EN.CITE  ADDIN EN.CITE.DATA ( HYPERLINK \l "_ENREF_45" \o "Spiegel, 2004 #19" Spiegel, 2004;  HYPERLINK \l "_ENREF_46" \o "Spiegel, 2004 #197" Spiegel & Nankoe, 2004). 

For people whose coping with adversity was maladaptive, this study established that they were more likely to engage in HRSB, especially in attempt to meet their livelihood demands  ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Spiegel</Author><Year>2004</Year><RecNum>197</RecNum><DisplayText>(Spiegel &amp; Nankoe, 2004)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>197</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="a0d2ews2b529dueavpcxtx5lep20a0t9atw2">197</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Spiegel, P. B,</author><author>Nankoe, A,</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>UNHCR, HIV/AIDS and Refugees: Lessons Learned</title><secondary-title>Forced Migration Review</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Forced Migration Review</full-title></periodical><pages>21-23</pages><volume>19</volume><dates><year>2004</year></dates><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>( HYPERLINK \l "_ENREF_46" \o "Spiegel, 2004 #197" Spiegel & Nankoe, 2004). Socio-economic and cultural readjustments following exposure to conflict seemed to be littered with misunderstandings leading to domestic violence and vulnerability to food scarcity. This is partly attributed to the resultant poverty which is known to over-stretch and even break kinship networks, supportive friends and family harmony  ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Alvarez-Castillo</Author><Year>2006</Year><RecNum>234</RecNum><DisplayText>(Alvarez-Castillo et al., 2006)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>234</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="a0d2ews2b529dueavpcxtx5lep20a0t9atw2">234</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Alvarez-Castillo, F.</author><author>Okuonzi, S.</author><author>Chabikuli, N.</author><author>Lomorro, O.</author><author>Atuyambe, L.</author><author>Silva, K. T. </author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Why some survive: coping, resilience and social capital in armed conflict</title><secondary-title>African Safety Promotion; A Journal of Injury and Violence Prevention</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>African Safety Promotion; A Journal of Injury and Violence Prevention</full-title></periodical><pages>78-87</pages><volume>4</volume><dates><year>2006</year></dates><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>( HYPERLINK \l "_ENREF_3" \o "Alvarez-Castillo, 2006 #234" Alvarez-Castillo et al., 2006).

Methodological Limitations
By the very nature of using FGDs, it is possible that the views of more vocal individuals were most prominent. However, care was taken to ensure that all individuals participated actively. Secondly, use of focus group discussions, a research approach from the qualitative paradigm are associated with limited generalizability given the recruitment of small and convenient samples  ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Khan</Author><Year>1992</Year><RecNum>235</RecNum><DisplayText>(Khan &amp; Manderson, 1992)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>235</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="a0d2ews2b529dueavpcxtx5lep20a0t9atw2">235</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Khan, M.</author><author>Manderson, L.</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Focus groups in tropical research</title><secondary-title>Health Policy and Planning</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Health Policy and Planning</full-title></periodical><pages>56�66</pages><volume>7</volume><dates><year>1992</year></dates><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>( HYPERLINK \l "_ENREF_24" \o "Khan, 1992 #235" Khan & Manderson, 1992). This leaves the readers with an obligation to evaluate the methods, setting, and results and decide if these are transferable to their own situation. Future research can do better by comparing perceptions in different war or conflict-affected ethnic and cultural groups.

Given the vulnerability of study participants who had depended on aid agencies in IDP camps, they were likely to misconstrue the researchers as representatives of aid agencies. This could explain their reception that was often cordial and anticipatory in nature. Even after self-introductions where emphasis was on the purpose of the study, most respondents still projected poverty as a central theme in their lives. Therefore, it is possible that in their responses, there could have been attempts to either please the researchers or to elicit compassion which might have affected the quality of data collected. The researchers had to assure study participants about who they were and the purpose of the research. 

Implications for Mental Health Care
Alleviating symptoms of distress usually requires the use of specialized techniques that help the patients confront fears and emotional responses to the traumatic events, without becoming overwhelmed  ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Yehuda</Author><Year>2002</Year><RecNum>236</RecNum><DisplayText>(Yehuda, 2002)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>236</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="a0d2ews2b529dueavpcxtx5lep20a0t9atw2">236</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Yehuda, R. </author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Post traumatic stress disorder</title><secondary-title>New England Journal of Medicine</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>New England Journal of Medicine</full-title></periodical><pages>108�114</pages><volume>346</volume><dates><year>2002</year></dates><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>( HYPERLINK \l "_ENREF_53" \o "Yehuda, 2002 #236" Yehuda, 2002). Attempts to intervene with all affected people, may not be an efficient or effective response, and may even be harmful  ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Bryant</Author><Year>2006</Year><RecNum>237</RecNum><DisplayText>(Bryant, 2006)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>237</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="a0d2ews2b529dueavpcxtx5lep20a0t9atw2">237</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Bryant, R. A.</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Recovery after the tsunami: timeline for rehabilitation</title><secondary-title>Journal of Clinical Psychiatry</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Journal of Clinical Psychiatry</full-title></periodical><pages>50-55</pages><volume>67(Suppl 2)</volume><dates><year>2006</year></dates><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>( HYPERLINK \l "_ENREF_9" \o "Bryant, 2006 #237" Bryant, 2006). Mental health workers need to selectively identify people at high risk of getting mental health problems and these may include; orphans, widowed, substance abusers, those engaged in high risk sexual behaviours and demobilised fighters. These should be the focus of mental health care. Continued surveillance of such individuals beyond the period of normal misery and focused mental health interventions for only those with persistent problems could be a better post-conflict mental health response.

Given what was found, it maybe necessary to reconsider the timing of utilization of formal psychiatric services in post-conflict settings. The role of psychiatric professionals in the immediate aftermath of a war or conflict could be ambiguous and they may be relevant only after the acute stress reactions subside and the period of resolution of normal grief is over. Instead, strengthening locally prevailing community-sanctioned support systems like family and friendship networks and religious buddies rather than starting formal counselling and routine mental health services appear to be more relevant initial responses.

Any attempts at giving aid should focus on integration with the services of community therapeutic and socio-economic self-help groups, spiritual organizations and other resources. The coping mechanisms of survivors should be shared along with the associated sadness. Accumulating such evidence may lead to holistic understanding and optimal rebuilding of post-conflict communities worldwide.

Future research should elucidate more about dimensional expressions of human suffering and resilience. This is particularly necessary in vulnerable groups such as women, older children and adolescents, and those with multiple losses. All the suggested strategies are in keeping with the recommendations of international opinions  ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Bhugra</Author><Year>2006</Year><RecNum>238</RecNum><DisplayText>(Bhugra &amp; van Ommeren, 2006; Van Ommeren, Saxena, &amp; Saraceno, 2005)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>238</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="a0d2ews2b529dueavpcxtx5lep20a0t9atw2">238</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Bhugra, D.</author><author>van Ommeren, M. </author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Mental health, psychosocial support and the tsunami</title><secondary-title>International Review of Psychiatry</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>International Review of Psychiatry</full-title></periodical><pages>213�216</pages><volume>18</volume><dates><year>2006</year></dates><urls></urls></record></Cite><Cite><Author>Van Ommeren</Author><Year>2005</Year><RecNum>239</RecNum><record><rec-number>239</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="a0d2ews2b529dueavpcxtx5lep20a0t9atw2">239</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Van Ommeren, M.</author><author>Saxena, S.</author><author>Saraceno, B. </author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Mental and social health during and after acute emergencies: emerging consensus?</title><secondary-title>Bulletin of the World Health Organization</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Bulletin of the World Health Organization</full-title></periodical><pages>71�76</pages><volume>83</volume><dates><year>2005</year></dates><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>( HYPERLINK \l "_ENREF_4" \o "Bhugra, 2006 #238" Bhugra & van Ommeren, 2006;  HYPERLINK \l "_ENREF_52" \o "Van Ommeren, 2005 #239" Van Ommeren, Saxena, & Saraceno, 2005). They may not address all the complexities in delivering holistic and efficient care for war or conflict survivors, but hopefully, they can facilitate movement towards that ideal  ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Rajkumar</Author><Year>2008</Year><RecNum>190</RecNum><DisplayText>(Rajkumar et al., 2008)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>190</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="a0d2ews2b529dueavpcxtx5lep20a0t9atw2">190</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Rajkumar, A. P.</author><author>Premkumar, T. S.</author><author>Tharyan, P.</author></authors></contributors><auth-address>Department of Psychiatry, Christian Medical College, Bagayam, Vellore 632002, Tamil Nadu, India. antoprajkumar@cmvellore.ac.in</auth-address><titles><title>Coping with the Asian tsunami: perspectives from Tamil Nadu, India on the determinants of resilience in the face of adversity</title><secondary-title>Soc Sci Med</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Soc Sci Med</full-title></periodical><pages>844-53</pages><volume>67</volume><number>5</number><edition>2008/06/20</edition><keywords><keyword>*Adaptation, Psychological</keyword><keyword>Asia</keyword><keyword>*Disasters</keyword><keyword>Female</keyword><keyword>Focus Groups</keyword><keyword>Grief</keyword><keyword>Humans</keyword><keyword>India</keyword><keyword>Male</keyword><keyword>Parents/psychology</keyword><keyword>Sociology, Medical</keyword><keyword>Spirituality</keyword><keyword>Stress Disorders, Post-Traumatic/psychology</keyword><keyword>Stress, Psychological/*psychology</keyword><keyword>Survivors/*psychology</keyword><keyword>*Tidal Waves</keyword></keywords><dates><year>2008</year><pub-dates><date>Sep</date></pub-dates></dates><isbn>0277-9536 (Print)&#xD;0277-9536 (Linking)</isbn><accession-num>18562066</accession-num><work-type>Research Support, Non-U.S. Gov&apos;t</work-type><urls><related-urls><url>http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18562066</url></related-urls></urls><electronic-resource-num>10.1016/j.socscimed.2008.05.014</electronic-resource-num><language>eng</language></record></Cite></EndNote>( HYPERLINK \l "_ENREF_39" \o "Rajkumar, 2008 #190" Rajkumar et al., 2008).

Since there was quite a lot of losses of social connectedness and self-belief, health and aid workers need to sustainably engage in re-establishment of social capital, empowerment and cultivation of self-belief. 

Conclusions
In this study, we chronicled forms of adversity associated with the exposure to conflict, their consequences as well as maladaptive and adaptive coping strategies that people employed. We also demonstrated that coping mechanisms exist at the individual and community level to enhance resilience and enable normal functioning, with minimal professional intervention. It is prudent that any post-conflict reconstruction should take cognizance of especially the adaptive coping mechanisms. Any attempts to restructure people�s values through counselling should take into account their resilience. It is vital to address the consequences of adversity if reconstruction and rehabilitation of the post-conflict society in its entirety is to be fully effective. With appropriate psychosocial healing as a component of social-reconstruction, post-conflict societies like those in eastern Uganda have the opportunity to recreate themselves  ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Judith</Author><Year>1992</Year><RecNum>77</RecNum><DisplayText>(Judith, 1992)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>77</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="a0d2ews2b529dueavpcxtx5lep20a0t9atw2">77</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Book">6</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Judith, H,</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Trauma and Recovery</title></titles><dates><year>1992</year></dates><pub-location>New York. Basic Books, Page 196</pub-location><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>( HYPERLINK \l "_ENREF_22" \o "Judith, 1992 #77" Judith, 1992). The goal of trauma healing is not to take away the traumatic experience but to acknowledge and integrate this experience, to mourn the old self that the trauma destroyed and create a new self with new beliefs and new meaning.

It is vital to appreciate that recovery from traumatic experiences requires much more than short-term livelihood adjustment. It requires sustainable and long term policies to recover assets, social capital and welfare as well as programmes to develop sustainable income. The study reiterates the need for policymakers and implementers to focus on the resilience of people, a resource for recovery and productivity. It also gives prominence to the need for allocation of resources to cultivate financial savings and education. Key lessons can be learnt from households and families that have recovered well from the traumatic conflicts. The key aspects of recovery include financial stability and the reconstitution of social support networks.

Lastly, policy makers and implementers must be better tuned to reversing the high social costs of displacement on women in relation to female disempowerment and intergenerational transmission of violence. Patterns of mobility in conflict situations are known to be complex and improvised but rarely random. This has significant implications for agencies seeking to develop strategies and policies for protecting and assisting forcibly displaced populations. Interventions, particularly with respect to young people displaced by violence, must find means of tapping into the constructive agency of individuals in war-affected environments, rather than simply regarding them as conflict risks, social outcasts or welfare assistance dependents. The lived experience and needs of populations and the reality of each conflict is always specific. There is a need to work with and in local existing realities, and the socio-economic dynamics of conflict environments, not simply with pre-existing frameworks and presumed needs of conflict affected populations.

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