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��ࡱ�>��	NQ����GHIJKLM��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������	���@bjbj���	;>�����8,������������������8;��"\0f�3#r�3�3�3�3�4��<,�?��e�e�e�e�e�e�eh��j@�e�dA�4�4dAdA�e���3�3�e C C CdA���3��3�S� CdA�e C Cr�KT�L�3����p�,��^BR7L�Sf00fELV�j�Bp�j�L�L�j��M,dAdA CdAdAdAdAdA�e�e CdAdAdA0fdAdAdAdA���������������������������������������������������������������������jdAdAdAdAdAdAdAdAdA�	�:	Evidence Based Recommendations for Natural Bodybuilding Contest Preparation: Resistance and Cardiovascular Training



Eric Helms1, Peter J. Fitschen2, Alan Aragon3, John Cronin1, 4




1 Sport Performance Research in New Zealand (SPRINZ) at AUT Millennium Institute, Auckland, New Zealand

2Division of Nutritional Sciences, University of Illinois, Urbana, Illinois, USA.

3California State University, Northridge, California, USA

4School of Exercise, Biomedical and Health Sciences, Edith Cowan University, Australia



















Corresponding Author
Eric Helms
Sports Performance Research in New Zealand at AUT Millennium
17 Antares Place, Mairangi Bay, Auckland 0632, New Zealand
Tel: (64) 021638466
E-mail: eric.helms@aut.ac.nz


Abstract:
Competitive natural bodybuilding success depends on maintenance of muscle mass and minimization of body fat. In reviewing relevant literature, the following is recommended.  Linear or undulating periodization should be utilized, body parts being trained on average twice weekly. Three to twelve repetitions should be utilized with most training in the 6 to 12 repetition range using 70-80% of 1 repetition maximum. Two to six sets per body part per session should be performed, scaled upward with experience level. One to three minute rest intervals are appropriate for most training phases. Repetition tempo should allow control of the load, 1 to 2 second concentric and 2 to 3 second eccentric tempos performed in most phases. Training to failure should be limited when performing heavy loads on taxing exercises and primarily relegated to single joint exercises and higher repetitions. Exercises should consist of a core group of multi-joint exercises with some single joint exercises to address specific body parts as needed, emphasizing full range of motion and proper form. 
Cardiovascular training should be used to enhance fat loss without inhibiting muscle mass maintenance. Interference with adaptations to strength training increases the longer and more frequent cardiovascular training is undertaken. Thus, the lowest frequency and duration possible while still achieving sufficient fat loss should be performed. Full-body cardiovascular training or cycling may reduce interference. High intensity cardiovascular training may also reduce interference; however, its use requires more recovery. Additionally, fasted cardiovascular training may not have benefits over fed-state training and could be detrimental.  


Key Words: caloric restriction, resistance training, aerobic exercise
Introduction:
	 In the United States, over 200 amateur natural (drug tested) bodybuilding contests occurred during 2012 and the number of contests is expected to increase in 2013  ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><RecNum>9</RecNum><DisplayText>[1]</DisplayText><record><rec-number>9</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="5azfefs98rvw0me9a0u5szphda5tx59pev50">9</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Web Page">12</ref-type><contributors></contributors><titles><title>Natural Bodybuilding Events</title></titles><dates></dates><urls><related-urls><url>http://www.naturalbodybuidlingevents.com</url></related-urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>[ HYPERLINK  \l "_ENREF_1" \o ",  #9" 1].  Preparation for bodybuilding competition involves drastic reductions in body fat.  Typically, this is achieved through a decreased caloric intake, intense resistance training, and increased cardiovascular exercise.  The goal is not only to decrease body fat levels, but to also maintain muscle mass.  
Competitors partake in numerous dietary and exercise strategies to prepare for a contest.  Some have a strong scientific basis; however, many do not.  The purpose of this article is to review the scientific literature on training topics relevant to bodybuilding competition.  In particular, evidence-based recommendations will be made pertaining to resistance training and cardiovascular training for natural bodybuilders.

Methods:
	An extensive literature search was performed using the PubMed database.  Searches were performed for �bodybuilders�, �hypertrophy�, �resistance training�, �exercise�, �bodybuilding�, �cardiovascular exercise�, �strength training�, �concurrent training�, �muscle�, �body fat�, �athletes�, and combinations of the aforementioned keywords.  The publications obtained were carefully screened for studies that included healthy humans or humans in a caloric deficit.  Studies on drug free bodybuilders were preferentially included. In their absence, long-term human studies focusing on hypertrophy and body fat loss were selected; however, studies examining strength, performance, and/or acute studies were selected in the absence of adequate long-term human studies.  In addition, author names and reference lists were used for further search of the selected papers for related references.

Resistance Training 
Bodybuilders perform resistance training with the goal of achieving proportional maximal hypertrophy across all muscle groups. During preparation before competition, typically 3-4 months  ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Sandoval</Author><Year>1991</Year><RecNum>11</RecNum><DisplayText>[2]</DisplayText><record><rec-number>11</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="5azfefs98rvw0me9a0u5szphda5tx59pev50">11</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Sandoval, W. M.</author><author>Heyward, V. H.</author></authors></contributors><auth-address>Department of Health Promotion, University of New Mexico, Albuquerque 87131.</auth-address><titles><title>Food selection patterns of bodybuilders</title><secondary-title>Int J Sport Nutr</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>International Journal of Sport Nutrition</full-title><abbr-1>Int. J. Sport Nutr.</abbr-1><abbr-2>Int J Sport Nutr</abbr-2></periodical><pages>61-8</pages><volume>1</volume><number>1</number><edition>1991/03/01</edition><keywords><keyword>Adult</keyword><keyword>Competitive Behavior</keyword><keyword>Female</keyword><keyword>Food Habits</keyword><keyword>Humans</keyword><keyword>Male</keyword><keyword>Nutritive Value</keyword><keyword>Weight Lifting/ psychology</keyword></keywords><dates><year>1991</year><pub-dates><date>Mar</date></pub-dates></dates><isbn>1050-1606 (Print)&#xD;1050-1606 (Linking)</isbn><accession-num>1844403</accession-num><urls></urls><language>eng</language></record></Cite></EndNote>[ HYPERLINK  \l "_ENREF_2" \o "Sandoval, 1991 #11" 2], bodybuilders reduce body fat substantially and perform resistance training to prevent lean body mass (LBM) loss. During severe caloric restriction, resistance training does not always lessen LBM loss  ADDIN EN.CITE  ADDIN EN.CITE.DATA [ HYPERLINK  \l "_ENREF_3" \o "Donnelly, 1991 #184" 3,  HYPERLINK  \l "_ENREF_4" \o "Gornall, 1996 #185" 4], but with less restrictive dieting and properly designed exercise it can be reduced or prevented  ADDIN EN.CITE  ADDIN EN.CITE.DATA [ HYPERLINK  \l "_ENREF_5" \o "Ballor, 1988 #187" 5-9]. Hypertrophy may occur during weight loss; however, this is rare and appears to be limited to novices, the untrained, the obese and overweight  ADDIN EN.CITE  ADDIN EN.CITE.DATA [ HYPERLINK  \l "_ENREF_10" \o "Demling, 2000 #196" 10-13]. 
During contest preparation calories are restricted and therefore the body is in a net catabolic state. To offset losses of LBM resistance training is performed during contest preparation. Resistance training programs designed to optimally increase muscle mass are likely similar to what will most effectively maintain it. Thus, a discussion of resistance training for hypertrophy follows with evidence-based modifications and suggestions for training in a state of caloric restriction and reduced recovery.
There are three factors theorized to contribute to hypertrophy: metabolic stress, mechanical tension and muscle damage  ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Schoenfeld</Author><Year>2010</Year><RecNum>204</RecNum><DisplayText>[14]</DisplayText><record><rec-number>204</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="5azfefs98rvw0me9a0u5szphda5tx59pev50">204</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Schoenfeld, B. J.</author></authors></contributors><auth-address>Global Fitness Services, Scarsdale, New York, USA. brad@workout911.com</auth-address><titles><title>The mechanisms of muscle hypertrophy and their application to resistance training</title><secondary-title>J Strength Cond Res</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research</full-title><abbr-1>J. Strength Cond. Res.</abbr-1><abbr-2>J Strength Cond Res</abbr-2><abbr-3>Journal of Strength &amp; Conditioning Research</abbr-3></periodical><pages>2857-72</pages><volume>24</volume><number>10</number><edition>2010/09/18</edition><keywords><keyword>Cytokines/physiology</keyword><keyword>Female</keyword><keyword>Hormones/metabolism/physiology</keyword><keyword>Humans</keyword><keyword>Male</keyword><keyword>Muscle Development/ physiology</keyword><keyword>Muscle, Skeletal/ growth &amp; development</keyword><keyword>Resistance Training</keyword><keyword>Satellite Cells, Skeletal Muscle/physiology</keyword><keyword>Weight Lifting/ physiology</keyword></keywords><dates><year>2010</year><pub-dates><date>Oct</date></pub-dates></dates><isbn>1533-4287 (Electronic)&#xD;1064-8011 (Linking)</isbn><accession-num>20847704</accession-num><urls></urls><electronic-resource-num>10.1519/JSC.0b013e3181e840f3 [doi]</electronic-resource-num><language>eng</language></record></Cite></EndNote>[ HYPERLINK  \l "_ENREF_14" \o "Schoenfeld, 2010 #204" 14]. These factors can be emphasized in varying combinations and degrees by different training methods, and when properly organized may result in an optimal hypertrophic stimulus. That said, individual adaptation to resistance training is highly variable  ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Timmons</Author><Year>2011</Year><RecNum>207</RecNum><DisplayText>[15]</DisplayText><record><rec-number>207</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="5azfefs98rvw0me9a0u5szphda5tx59pev50">207</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Timmons, J. A.</author></authors></contributors><auth-address>Royal Veterinary College, Univ. of London, Camden NW1 0TU, United Kingdom. Jamie.timmons@gmail.com</auth-address><titles><title>Variability in training-induced skeletal muscle adaptation</title><secondary-title>J Appl Physiol</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Journal of Applied Physiology</full-title><abbr-1>J. Appl. Physiol.</abbr-1><abbr-2>J Appl Physiol</abbr-2></periodical><pages>846-53</pages><volume>110</volume><number>3</number><edition>2010/10/30</edition><keywords><keyword>Adaptation, Physiological/ genetics</keyword><keyword>Humans</keyword><keyword>Muscle Contraction/ genetics</keyword><keyword>Muscle Strength/ genetics</keyword><keyword>Muscle, Skeletal/ physiology</keyword><keyword>Physical Exertion/ physiology</keyword><keyword>Physical Fitness/ physiology</keyword></keywords><dates><year>2011</year><pub-dates><date>Mar</date></pub-dates></dates><isbn>1522-1601 (Electronic)&#xD;0161-7567 (Linking)</isbn><accession-num>21030666</accession-num><urls></urls><electronic-resource-num>japplphysiol.00934.2010 [pii]&#xD;10.1152/japplphysiol.00934.2010 [doi]</electronic-resource-num><language>eng</language></record></Cite></EndNote>[ HYPERLINK  \l "_ENREF_15" \o "Timmons, 2011 #207" 15]. Men adapt in greater magnitudes to strength training compared to women but, the adaptations are fundamentally the same thus, no significant differences in training approach need be performed when training either gender  ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Holloway</Author><Year>1990</Year><RecNum>208</RecNum><DisplayText>[16]</DisplayText><record><rec-number>208</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="5azfefs98rvw0me9a0u5szphda5tx59pev50">208</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Holloway, J. B.</author><author>Baechle, T. R.</author></authors></contributors><auth-address>Department of Kinesiology, UCLA Extension.</auth-address><titles><title>Strength training for female athletes. A review of selected aspects</title><secondary-title>Sports Med</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Sports Medicine</full-title><abbr-1>Sports Med.</abbr-1><abbr-2>Sports Med</abbr-2></periodical><pages>216-28</pages><volume>9</volume><number>4</number><edition>1990/04/01</edition><keywords><keyword>Body Composition</keyword><keyword>Female</keyword><keyword>Femur/anatomy &amp; histology</keyword><keyword>Hip/anatomy &amp; histology</keyword><keyword>Humans</keyword><keyword>Knee/anatomy &amp; histology</keyword><keyword>Menstruation</keyword><keyword>Muscles/anatomy &amp; histology/physiology</keyword><keyword>Physical Education and Training</keyword><keyword>Self Concept</keyword><keyword>Sex Characteristics</keyword><keyword>Weight Lifting</keyword></keywords><dates><year>1990</year><pub-dates><date>Apr</date></pub-dates></dates><isbn>0112-1642 (Print)&#xD;0112-1642 (Linking)</isbn><accession-num>2183330</accession-num><urls></urls><language>eng</language></record></Cite></EndNote>[ HYPERLINK  \l "_ENREF_16" \o "Holloway, 1990 #208" 16]. Training experience, age, diet and other variables however do alter the response to training.  Results that some individuals achieve with certain regimens may not represent a norm. Thus, the following should be seen as a guide to training while preparing for bodybuilding competition, but training should be tailored to individual needs and adjusted based on the individual�s response to a training stimulus. 

Periodization
Periodization is the process of organizing training in periods of macrocycles (often six months to one year in length), mesocycles (often one month in length), and microcycles (often one week in length). Different training parameters are utilized in phases to produce adaptation without stagnation or injury. This can be accomplished with linear periodization (LP) -decreasing volume while concurrently increasing intensity; reverse linear periodization (RLP) - increasing volume while concurrently decreasing intensity; or with ,undulating periodization (UP) - process by which concurrent adaptations are sought by utilizing multiple training parameters on different days of the week, or in alternating microcycles. For a more in depth discussion and definition of periodization and its related terminology see the recent review by Anthony  ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Anthony</Author><Year>2011</Year><RecNum>291</RecNum><DisplayText>[17]</DisplayText><record><rec-number>291</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="5azfefs98rvw0me9a0u5szphda5tx59pev50">291</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Anthony, Turner</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>The science and practice of periodization: a brief review</title><secondary-title>Strength and Conditioning Journal</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Strength and Conditioning Journal</full-title><abbr-1>Strength Cond J</abbr-1></periodical><pages>34-46</pages><volume>33</volume><number>1</number><keywords><keyword>Physical Fitness And Hygiene</keyword></keywords><dates><year>2011</year></dates><pub-location>Lawrence, United States, Lawrence</pub-location><isbn>15241602</isbn><accession-num>852766610</accession-num><urls><related-urls><url>http://ezproxy.aut.ac.nz/login?url=http://search.proquest.com/docview/852766610?accountid=8440</url><url>http://yu7rz9hn8y.search.serialssolutions.com.ezproxy.aut.ac.nz/?ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;ctx_enc=info:ofi/enc:UTF-8&amp;rfr_id=info:sid/ProQ%3Ahealthcompleteshell&amp;rft_val_fmt=info:ofi/fmt:kev:mtx:journal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Strength+and+Conditioning+Journal&amp;rft.atitle=The+Science+and+Practice+of+Periodization%3A+A+Brief+Review&amp;rft.au=Turner%2C+Anthony&amp;rft.aulast=Turner&amp;rft.aufirst=Anthony&amp;rft.date=2011-02-01&amp;rft.volume=33&amp;rft.issue=1&amp;rft.spage=34&amp;rft.isbn=&amp;rft.btitle=&amp;rft.title=Strength+and+Conditioning+Journal&amp;rft.issn=15241602</url></related-urls></urls><remote-database-name>OxResearch; ProQuest Central</remote-database-name><language>English</language></record></Cite></EndNote>[ HYPERLINK  \l "_ENREF_17" \o "Anthony, 2011 #291" 17]. 
Several groups of researchers have compared the efficacy of various types of periodization.  Prestes et al  ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Prestes</Author><Year>2009</Year><RecNum>210</RecNum><DisplayText>[18]</DisplayText><record><rec-number>210</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="5azfefs98rvw0me9a0u5szphda5tx59pev50">210</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Prestes, J.</author><author>De Lima, C.</author><author>Frollini, A. B.</author><author>Donatto, F. F.</author><author>Conte, M.</author></authors></contributors><auth-address>Physiological Sciences Department, Exercise Physiology Laboratory, Federal University of Sao Carlos, Sao Paulo, Brazil. jonatop@gmail.com</auth-address><titles><title>Comparison of linear and reverse linear periodization effects on maximal strength and body composition</title><secondary-title>J Strength Cond Res</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research</full-title><abbr-1>J. Strength Cond. Res.</abbr-1><abbr-2>J Strength Cond Res</abbr-2><abbr-3>Journal of Strength &amp; Conditioning Research</abbr-3></periodical><pages>266-74</pages><volume>23</volume><number>1</number><edition>2008/12/06</edition><keywords><keyword>Adult</keyword><keyword>Analysis of Variance</keyword><keyword>Anthropometry</keyword><keyword>Body Composition/ physiology</keyword><keyword>Female</keyword><keyword>Humans</keyword><keyword>Muscle Strength/ physiology</keyword><keyword>Periodicity</keyword><keyword>Physical Endurance/physiology</keyword><keyword>Probability</keyword><keyword>Resistance Training/ methods</keyword><keyword>Sensitivity and Specificity</keyword><keyword>Weight Lifting/physiology</keyword><keyword>Weight-Bearing</keyword><keyword>Young Adult</keyword></keywords><dates><year>2009</year><pub-dates><date>Jan</date></pub-dates></dates><isbn>1533-4287 (Electronic)&#xD;1064-8011 (Linking)</isbn><accession-num>19057409</accession-num><urls></urls><electronic-resource-num>10.1519/JSC.0b013e3181874bf3 [doi]</electronic-resource-num><language>eng</language></record></Cite></EndNote>[ HYPERLINK  \l "_ENREF_18" \o "Prestes, 2009 #210" 18] investigated a comparison of LP and RLP and found a significant 7% increase in LBM in the LP group; while non-significant increases in LBM (4%) were reported in the RLP group over the course of training.  Moreover, a significant 17% decrease in body fat mass was observed in the LP group while the RLP group showed non-significant decreases in body fat mass (11%) from start to finish.  The authors noted that further study of LP should be undertaken with a comparison to the UP model. 
It would seem from some studies that the UP model is superior to LP in eliciting performance improvements  ADDIN EN.CITE  ADDIN EN.CITE.DATA [ HYPERLINK  \l "_ENREF_19" \o "Miranda, 2011 #211" 19,  HYPERLINK  \l "_ENREF_20" \o "Prestes, 2009 #212" 20] but other data appears to conflict  ADDIN EN.CITE  ADDIN EN.CITE.DATA [ HYPERLINK  \l "_ENREF_21" \o "Buford, 2007 #215" 21,  HYPERLINK  \l "_ENREF_22" \o "Apel, 2011 #216" 22]. More relevant, is that regardless of changes in performance, significant changes in body composition have not been observed in studies comparing LP and UP  ADDIN EN.CITE  ADDIN EN.CITE.DATA [ HYPERLINK  \l "_ENREF_20" \o "Prestes, 2009 #212" 20-22]. However, in bodybuilders that have  high degrees of training experience, significant LBM gains are not always observed in the short term  ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Alway</Author><Year>1992</Year><RecNum>214</RecNum><DisplayText>[23]</DisplayText><record><rec-number>214</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="5azfefs98rvw0me9a0u5szphda5tx59pev50">214</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Alway, S. E.</author><author>Grumbt, W. H.</author><author>Stray-Gundersen, J.</author><author>Gonyea, W. J.</author></authors></contributors><auth-address>Department of Cell Biology, University of Texas Southwestern/St. Paul Human Performance Center, Dallas 75235.</auth-address><titles><title>Effects of resistance training on elbow flexors of highly competitive bodybuilders</title><secondary-title>J Appl Physiol</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Journal of Applied Physiology</full-title><abbr-1>J. Appl. Physiol.</abbr-1><abbr-2>J Appl Physiol</abbr-2></periodical><pages>1512-21</pages><volume>72</volume><number>4</number><edition>1992/04/01</edition><keywords><keyword>Adaptation, Physiological</keyword><keyword>Adult</keyword><keyword>Elbow</keyword><keyword>Female</keyword><keyword>Humans</keyword><keyword>Hypertrophy</keyword><keyword>Male</keyword><keyword>Muscle Contraction/physiology</keyword><keyword>Muscles/ anatomy &amp; histology/physiology</keyword><keyword>Physical Education and Training</keyword><keyword>Sex Characteristics</keyword></keywords><dates><year>1992</year><pub-dates><date>Apr</date></pub-dates></dates><isbn>8750-7587 (Print)&#xD;0161-7567 (Linking)</isbn><accession-num>1592744</accession-num><urls></urls><language>eng</language></record></Cite></EndNote>[ HYPERLINK  \l "_ENREF_23" \o "Alway, 1992 #214" 23]. The non-significant changes in anthropometrics observed by Apel et al  ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Apel</Author><Year>2011</Year><RecNum>216</RecNum><DisplayText>[22]</DisplayText><record><rec-number>216</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="5azfefs98rvw0me9a0u5szphda5tx59pev50">216</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Apel, J. M.</author><author>Lacey, R. M.</author><author>Kell, R. T.</author></authors></contributors><auth-address>Augustana Faculty, Department of Social Sciences, University of Alberta, Augustana Campus, Camrose, Alberta T4V 2R3, Canada.</auth-address><titles><title>A comparison of traditional and weekly undulating periodized strength training programs with total volume and intensity equated</title><secondary-title>J Strength Cond Res</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research</full-title><abbr-1>J. Strength Cond. Res.</abbr-1><abbr-2>J Strength Cond Res</abbr-2><abbr-3>Journal of Strength &amp; Conditioning Research</abbr-3></periodical><pages>694-703</pages><volume>25</volume><number>3</number><edition>2010/06/29</edition><keywords><keyword>Body Composition/physiology</keyword><keyword>Humans</keyword><keyword>Male</keyword><keyword>Muscle Strength/physiology</keyword><keyword>Muscle, Skeletal/physiology</keyword><keyword>Resistance Training/ methods</keyword><keyword>Weight Lifting/ physiology</keyword><keyword>Young Adult</keyword></keywords><dates><year>2011</year><pub-dates><date>Mar</date></pub-dates></dates><isbn>1533-4287 (Electronic)&#xD;1064-8011 (Linking)</isbn><accession-num>20581703</accession-num><urls></urls><electronic-resource-num>10.1519/JSC.0b013e3181c69ef6 [doi]</electronic-resource-num><language>eng</language></record></Cite></EndNote>[ HYPERLINK  \l "_ENREF_22" \o "Apel, 2011 #216" 22] and Prestes et al  ADDIN EN.CITE  ADDIN EN.CITE.DATA [ HYPERLINK  \l "_ENREF_20" \o "Prestes, 2009 #212" 20] in their studies comparing UP to LP in resistance trained subjects support these findings.  Perhaps in studies of longer duration, morphological changes would have emerged due to the longer time course for muscular adaptation in resistance trained individuals. 
Looking at the collective data, RLP appears to be the only form of periodization reviewed that may not offer the same differential adaptation to muscle size as other forms of periodization. Therefore, bodybuilders may benefit from periodizing their training during contest preparation in either an undulating or traditional linear format.

Frequency of Training
Many investigations have been carried out examining the effect of training frequency.  In a systematic review of 60 studies on hypertrophy, it was determined that rapid progress is made by novices performing very high frequency training (training each muscle group four times per week), and more advanced trainees make optimal progress training each muscle group two to three times weekly  ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Wernbom</Author><Year>2007</Year><RecNum>209</RecNum><DisplayText>[24]</DisplayText><record><rec-number>209</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="5azfefs98rvw0me9a0u5szphda5tx59pev50">209</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Wernbom, M.</author><author>Augustsson, J.</author><author>Thomee, R.</author></authors></contributors><auth-address>mLundberg Laboratory for Human Muscle Function and Movement Analysis, Department of Orthopaedics, Sahlgrenska University Hospital, Goteborg University, Goteborg, Sweden. mathias.vernbom@orthop.gu.se</auth-address><titles><title>The influence of frequency, intensity, volume and mode of strength training on whole muscle cross-sectional area in humans</title><secondary-title>Sports Med</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Sports Medicine</full-title><abbr-1>Sports Med.</abbr-1><abbr-2>Sports Med</abbr-2></periodical><pages>225-64</pages><volume>37</volume><number>3</number><edition>2007/03/01</edition><keywords><keyword>Elbow/physiology</keyword><keyword>Humans</keyword><keyword>Leg/physiology</keyword><keyword>Muscle, Skeletal/ anatomy &amp; histology/ physiology</keyword><keyword>Physical Education and Training/ methods</keyword><keyword>Sex Factors</keyword><keyword>Torque</keyword><keyword>Weight Lifting/ physiology</keyword></keywords><dates><year>2007</year></dates><isbn>0112-1642 (Print)&#xD;0112-1642 (Linking)</isbn><accession-num>17326698</accession-num><urls></urls><electronic-resource-num>3734 [pii]</electronic-resource-num><language>eng</language></record></Cite></EndNote>[ HYPERLINK  \l "_ENREF_24" \o "Wernbom, 2007 #209" 24].  
Although training muscle groups more than once per week may be beneficial under normal conditions, there is a paucity of research that has investigated advanced lifters in a caloric deficit whilst performing cardiovascular training, as is commonly seen in bodybuilding contest preparation. During preparation, bodybuilders commonly increase volume  ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Newton</Author><Year>1993</Year><RecNum>24</RecNum><DisplayText>[25]</DisplayText><record><rec-number>24</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="5azfefs98rvw0me9a0u5szphda5tx59pev50">24</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Newton, L. E.</author><author>Hunter, G. R.</author><author>Bammon, M.</author><author>Roney, R. K.</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Changes in psychological state and self-reported diet during various phases of training in competitive bodybuilders</title><secondary-title>Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research</full-title><abbr-1>J. Strength Cond. Res.</abbr-1><abbr-2>J Strength Cond Res</abbr-2><abbr-3>Journal of Strength &amp; Conditioning Research</abbr-3></periodical><pages>153-8</pages><volume>7</volume><number>3</number><keywords><keyword>body composition</keyword><keyword>caloric intake</keyword><keyword>percent fat</keyword><keyword>weight training</keyword><keyword>aerobic training</keyword><keyword>00124278-199308000-00005</keyword></keywords><dates><year>1993</year></dates><isbn>1064-8011</isbn><urls><related-urls><url>http://journals.lww.com/nsca-jscr/Fulltext/1993/08000/Changes_in_Psychological_State_and_Self_Reported.5.aspx</url></related-urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>[ HYPERLINK  \l "_ENREF_25" \o "Newton, 1993 #24" 25], but since hypertrophy under these conditions is unlikely  ADDIN EN.CITE  ADDIN EN.CITE.DATA [ HYPERLINK  \l "_ENREF_26" \o "Maestu, 2010 #14" 26], it may be more beneficial to determine what frequency is optimal to maintain muscle mass while avoiding overtraining.  Considering the optimal determined frequency for hypertrophy in advanced trainees appears to be two to three training sessions weekly per body part  ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Wernbom</Author><Year>2007</Year><RecNum>209</RecNum><DisplayText>[24]</DisplayText><record><rec-number>209</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="5azfefs98rvw0me9a0u5szphda5tx59pev50">209</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Wernbom, M.</author><author>Augustsson, J.</author><author>Thomee, R.</author></authors></contributors><auth-address>mLundberg Laboratory for Human Muscle Function and Movement Analysis, Department of Orthopaedics, Sahlgrenska University Hospital, Goteborg University, Goteborg, Sweden. mathias.vernbom@orthop.gu.se</auth-address><titles><title>The influence of frequency, intensity, volume and mode of strength training on whole muscle cross-sectional area in humans</title><secondary-title>Sports Med</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Sports Medicine</full-title><abbr-1>Sports Med.</abbr-1><abbr-2>Sports Med</abbr-2></periodical><pages>225-64</pages><volume>37</volume><number>3</number><edition>2007/03/01</edition><keywords><keyword>Elbow/physiology</keyword><keyword>Humans</keyword><keyword>Leg/physiology</keyword><keyword>Muscle, Skeletal/ anatomy &amp; histology/ physiology</keyword><keyword>Physical Education and Training/ methods</keyword><keyword>Sex Factors</keyword><keyword>Torque</keyword><keyword>Weight Lifting/ physiology</keyword></keywords><dates><year>2007</year></dates><isbn>0112-1642 (Print)&#xD;0112-1642 (Linking)</isbn><accession-num>17326698</accession-num><urls></urls><electronic-resource-num>3734 [pii]</electronic-resource-num><language>eng</language></record></Cite></EndNote>[ HYPERLINK  \l "_ENREF_24" \o "Wernbom, 2007 #209" 24], to avoid overtraining it may be prudent to use the lower end of this range and train each body part bi-weekly during contest preparation. Additionally, while  not occurring during caloric restriction, power lifters that trained six times weekly increased their muscle mass significantly more than power lifters who trained three times per week with matched training volumes  ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Raastad</Author><Year>2012</Year><RecNum>460</RecNum><DisplayText>[27]</DisplayText><record><rec-number>460</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="5azfefs98rvw0me9a0u5szphda5tx59pev50">460</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Conference Paper">47</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Raastad, T</author><author>Kirketeig, A</author><author>Wolf, D</author><author>Paulsen, G</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Powerlifters improved strength and muscular adaptations to a greater extent when equal total training volume was divided into 6 compared to 3 training sessions per week</title><secondary-title>17th annual conference of the ECSS, Brugge 4-7 </secondary-title></titles><dates><year>2012</year><pub-dates><date>July 2012</date></pub-dates></dates><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>[ HYPERLINK  \l "_ENREF_27" \o "Raastad, 2012 #460" 27]. These results may indicate that more sessions per week with a lower volume per session may allow more recovery which could be use during bodybuilding contest preparation. 

Repetition Range and Intensity
Many researchers have examined the ideal repetition range and intensity for hypertrophy.  Campos et al.  ADDIN EN.CITE  ADDIN EN.CITE.DATA [ HYPERLINK  \l "_ENREF_28" \o "Campos, 2002 #222" 28] examined the effects of using loads in the 3-5, 9-11, or 20-28 repetition ranges and found that the 3-5 and 9-11 repetition ranges resulted in a 12.5%, 19.5%, and 26% increases in cross sectional area for type I, type IIA, and type IIB fibers, respectively.  However, no significant differences in cross sectional area were observed in the 20-28repetition range group.  Although low to moderate repetition range resistance training may be beneficial for increasing muscle size, exclusively low repetition, low volume, heavy training at loads of 90% of 1RM in some cases produces no significant increases in CSA  ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Moss</Author><Year>1997</Year><RecNum>223</RecNum><DisplayText>[29]</DisplayText><record><rec-number>223</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="5azfefs98rvw0me9a0u5szphda5tx59pev50">223</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Moss, B. M.</author><author>Refsnes, P. E.</author><author>Abildgaard, A.</author><author>Nicolaysen, K.</author><author>Jensen, J.</author></authors></contributors><auth-address>Norwegian University of Sport and Physical Education, Oslo, Norway.</auth-address><titles><title>Effects of maximal effort strength training with different loads on dynamic strength, cross-sectional area, load-power and load-velocity relationships</title><secondary-title>Eur J Appl Physiol Occup Physiol</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>European Journal of Applied Physiology and Occupational Physiology</full-title><abbr-1>Eur J Appl Physiol Occup Physiol</abbr-1></periodical><pages>193-9</pages><volume>75</volume><number>3</number><edition>1997/01/01</edition><keywords><keyword>Adult</keyword><keyword>Biomechanics</keyword><keyword>Humans</keyword><keyword>Male</keyword><keyword>Muscle, Skeletal/ anatomy &amp; histology/ physiology</keyword><keyword>Weight Lifting</keyword></keywords><dates><year>1997</year></dates><isbn>0301-5548 (Print)&#xD;0301-5548 (Linking)</isbn><accession-num>9088836</accession-num><urls></urls><language>eng</language></record></Cite></EndNote>[ HYPERLINK  \l "_ENREF_29" \o "Moss, 1997 #223" 29]. Thus, while optimal loads should be used, sufficiently high volumes must be utilized to maximize the hypertrophic response. In support of this, Goto et al  ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Goto</Author><Year>2004</Year><RecNum>224</RecNum><DisplayText>[30]</DisplayText><record><rec-number>224</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="5azfefs98rvw0me9a0u5szphda5tx59pev50">224</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Goto, K.</author><author>Nagasawa, M.</author><author>Yanagisawa, O.</author><author>Kizuka, T.</author><author>Ishii, N.</author><author>Takamatsu, K.</author></authors></contributors><auth-address>Institute of Health and Sport Sciences, University of Tsukuba, Tsukuba, Ibaraki, Japan.</auth-address><titles><title>Muscular adaptations to combinations of high- and low-intensity resistance exercises</title><secondary-title>J Strength Cond Res</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research</full-title><abbr-1>J. Strength Cond. Res.</abbr-1><abbr-2>J Strength Cond Res</abbr-2><abbr-3>Journal of Strength &amp; Conditioning Research</abbr-3></periodical><pages>730-7</pages><volume>18</volume><number>4</number><edition>2004/12/03</edition><keywords><keyword>Adaptation, Physiological</keyword><keyword>Adult</keyword><keyword>Exercise/ physiology</keyword><keyword>Growth Hormone/blood</keyword><keyword>Humans</keyword><keyword>Leg/ physiology</keyword><keyword>Male</keyword><keyword>Muscle, Skeletal/anatomy &amp; histology/ physiology</keyword><keyword>Physical Endurance/ physiology</keyword></keywords><dates><year>2004</year><pub-dates><date>Nov</date></pub-dates></dates><isbn>1064-8011 (Print)&#xD;1064-8011 (Linking)</isbn><accession-num>15574075</accession-num><urls></urls><electronic-resource-num>R-13603 [pii]&#xD;10.1519/R-13603.1 [doi]</electronic-resource-num><language>eng</language></record></Cite></EndNote>[ HYPERLINK  \l "_ENREF_30" \o "Goto, 2004 #224" 30] showed a trend (p=0.08) for increased hypertrophy when high repetition, low intensity training (one set at 25-35 RM) was added after low repetition, high intensity training (5 sets at 3-5 RM) versus when low repetition, high intensity training was performed alone. 
Researchers have examined the effects of numerous training repetition ranges, and the ACSM has concluded that repetition ranges of 1 to12 with intensities of 1-12RM can be utilized in the context of a periodized program to elicit hypertrophy  ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Year>2009</Year><RecNum>225</RecNum><DisplayText>[31]</DisplayText><record><rec-number>225</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="5azfefs98rvw0me9a0u5szphda5tx59pev50">225</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>ACSM</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>American College of Sports Medicine position stand. Progression models in resistance training for healthy adults.</title><secondary-title>Medicine &amp; Science in Sports &amp; Exercise</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise</full-title><abbr-1>Med. Sci. Sports Exerc.</abbr-1><abbr-2>Med Sci Sports Exerc</abbr-2><abbr-3>Medicine &amp; Science in Sports &amp; Exercise</abbr-3></periodical><pages>687-708 </pages><volume>41</volume><number>3</number><keywords><keyword>strength</keyword><keyword>power</keyword><keyword>local muscular endurance</keyword><keyword>fitness</keyword><keyword>functional abilities</keyword><keyword>hypertrophy</keyword><keyword>health</keyword><keyword>performance</keyword><keyword>00005768-200903000-00026</keyword></keywords><dates><year>2009</year></dates><isbn>0195-9131</isbn><urls><related-urls><url>http://journals.lww.com/acsm-msse/Fulltext/2009/03000/Progression_Models_in_Resistance_Training_for.26.aspx</url></related-urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>[ HYPERLINK  \l "_ENREF_31" \o "ACSM, 2009 #225" 31]. Fine tuning these recommendations further, authors of a recent systematic review concluded that to produce optimal changes in CSA, a repetition range of 6 to12 using 70-80% of 1RM should be the primary training intensity utilized  ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Wernbom</Author><Year>2007</Year><RecNum>209</RecNum><DisplayText>[24]</DisplayText><record><rec-number>209</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="5azfefs98rvw0me9a0u5szphda5tx59pev50">209</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Wernbom, M.</author><author>Augustsson, J.</author><author>Thomee, R.</author></authors></contributors><auth-address>mLundberg Laboratory for Human Muscle Function and Movement Analysis, Department of Orthopaedics, Sahlgrenska University Hospital, Goteborg University, Goteborg, Sweden. mathias.vernbom@orthop.gu.se</auth-address><titles><title>The influence of frequency, intensity, volume and mode of strength training on whole muscle cross-sectional area in humans</title><secondary-title>Sports Med</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Sports Medicine</full-title><abbr-1>Sports Med.</abbr-1><abbr-2>Sports Med</abbr-2></periodical><pages>225-64</pages><volume>37</volume><number>3</number><edition>2007/03/01</edition><keywords><keyword>Elbow/physiology</keyword><keyword>Humans</keyword><keyword>Leg/physiology</keyword><keyword>Muscle, Skeletal/ anatomy &amp; histology/ physiology</keyword><keyword>Physical Education and Training/ methods</keyword><keyword>Sex Factors</keyword><keyword>Torque</keyword><keyword>Weight Lifting/ physiology</keyword></keywords><dates><year>2007</year></dates><isbn>0112-1642 (Print)&#xD;0112-1642 (Linking)</isbn><accession-num>17326698</accession-num><urls></urls><electronic-resource-num>3734 [pii]</electronic-resource-num><language>eng</language></record></Cite></EndNote>[ HYPERLINK  \l "_ENREF_24" \o "Wernbom, 2007 #209" 24]. Thus, these guidelines should be followed during contest preparation, as the repetition ranges and intensities that optimally increase muscle mass are likely similar to what will most effectively maintain it.

Number of Sets and Volume
Total volume is determined as the product of sets, repetitions and load. Once training intensity and repetition range is determined, the number of sets needs to be prescribed. Recently in a meta analysis, Krieger reported 40% greater hypertrophy when multiple sets were compared to single sets  ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Krieger</Author><Year>2010</Year><RecNum>226</RecNum><DisplayText>[32]</DisplayText><record><rec-number>226</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="5azfefs98rvw0me9a0u5szphda5tx59pev50">226</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Krieger, J. W.</author></authors></contributors><auth-address>Journal of Pure Power, Colorado Springs, CO, USA. jim@jopp.us</auth-address><titles><title>Single vs. multiple sets of resistance exercise for muscle hypertrophy: a meta-analysis</title><secondary-title>J Strength Cond Res</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research</full-title><abbr-1>J. Strength Cond. Res.</abbr-1><abbr-2>J Strength Cond Res</abbr-2><abbr-3>Journal of Strength &amp; Conditioning Research</abbr-3></periodical><pages>1150-9</pages><volume>24</volume><number>4</number><edition>2010/03/20</edition><keywords><keyword>Adult</keyword><keyword>Case-Control Studies</keyword><keyword>Female</keyword><keyword>Humans</keyword><keyword>Hypertrophy/pathology/physiopathology</keyword><keyword>Male</keyword><keyword>Muscle Strength/ physiology</keyword><keyword>Muscle, Skeletal/ pathology/physiology</keyword><keyword>Physical Education and Training/methods</keyword><keyword>Resistance Training/ methods</keyword><keyword>Weight Lifting/ physiology</keyword><keyword>Young Adult</keyword></keywords><dates><year>2010</year><pub-dates><date>Apr</date></pub-dates></dates><isbn>1533-4287 (Electronic)&#xD;1064-8011 (Linking)</isbn><accession-num>20300012</accession-num><urls></urls><electronic-resource-num>10.1519/JSC.0b013e3181d4d436 [doi]</electronic-resource-num><language>eng</language></record></Cite></EndNote>[ HYPERLINK  \l "_ENREF_32" \o "Krieger, 2010 #226" 32]. Furthermore, effect sizes for hypertrophy tended to increase as sets increased (0.24 for 1 set, 0.34 for 2�3 sets, and 0.44 for 4�6 sets).  However, there is evidence that there are different responses regionally in the body.  Ronnestad et al  ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Ronnestad</Author><Year>2007</Year><RecNum>229</RecNum><DisplayText>[33]</DisplayText><record><rec-number>229</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="5azfefs98rvw0me9a0u5szphda5tx59pev50">229</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Ronnestad, B. R.</author><author>Egeland, W.</author><author>Kvamme, N. H.</author><author>Refsnes, P. E.</author><author>Kadi, F.</author><author>Raastad, T.</author></authors></contributors><auth-address>Norwegian College of Sport Sciences, Oslo.</auth-address><titles><title>Dissimilar effects of one- and three-set strength training on strength and muscle mass gains in upper and lower body in untrained subjects</title><secondary-title>J Strength Cond Res</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research</full-title><abbr-1>J. Strength Cond. Res.</abbr-1><abbr-2>J Strength Cond Res</abbr-2><abbr-3>Journal of Strength &amp; Conditioning Research</abbr-3></periodical><pages>157-63</pages><volume>21</volume><number>1</number><edition>2007/02/23</edition><keywords><keyword>Absorptiometry, Photon</keyword><keyword>Adult</keyword><keyword>Body Composition</keyword><keyword>Diet</keyword><keyword>Humans</keyword><keyword>Male</keyword><keyword>Muscle, Skeletal/*physiology</keyword><keyword>Physical Education and Training/*methods</keyword><keyword>Torque</keyword><keyword>Weight Lifting/*physiology</keyword></keywords><dates><year>2007</year><pub-dates><date>Feb</date></pub-dates></dates><isbn>1064-8011 (Print)&#xD;1064-8011 (Linking)</isbn><accession-num>17313291</accession-num><urls><related-urls><url>http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17313291</url></related-urls></urls><electronic-resource-num>R-19895 [pii]&#xD;10.1519/R-19895.1</electronic-resource-num><language>eng</language></record></Cite></EndNote>[ HYPERLINK  \l "_ENREF_33" \o "Ronnestad, 2007 #229" 33] observed no significant differences in hypertrophy between single and multiple sets in the upper body while the lower body responded significantly more to multiple (11%) sets versus single (7%) sets. 
Regional differences in the hypertrophy response to training may reflect the �training age� of different muscle groups of the subjects. In a systematic review of studies on the quadriceps and elbow flexors it was determined that the quadriceps when trained with 40 to 60 repetitions (roughly 4-6 sets using hypertrophy rep ranges for each set) per workout, CSA increased at a rate of 0.13% per day while the elbow flexors when trained with 42 to 66 repetitions per workout grew in CSA at a rate of 0.26% per day  ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Wernbom</Author><Year>2007</Year><RecNum>209</RecNum><DisplayText>[24]</DisplayText><record><rec-number>209</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="5azfefs98rvw0me9a0u5szphda5tx59pev50">209</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Wernbom, M.</author><author>Augustsson, J.</author><author>Thomee, R.</author></authors></contributors><auth-address>mLundberg Laboratory for Human Muscle Function and Movement Analysis, Department of Orthopaedics, Sahlgrenska University Hospital, Goteborg University, Goteborg, Sweden. mathias.vernbom@orthop.gu.se</auth-address><titles><title>The influence of frequency, intensity, volume and mode of strength training on whole muscle cross-sectional area in humans</title><secondary-title>Sports Med</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Sports Medicine</full-title><abbr-1>Sports Med.</abbr-1><abbr-2>Sports Med</abbr-2></periodical><pages>225-64</pages><volume>37</volume><number>3</number><edition>2007/03/01</edition><keywords><keyword>Elbow/physiology</keyword><keyword>Humans</keyword><keyword>Leg/physiology</keyword><keyword>Muscle, Skeletal/ anatomy &amp; histology/ physiology</keyword><keyword>Physical Education and Training/ methods</keyword><keyword>Sex Factors</keyword><keyword>Torque</keyword><keyword>Weight Lifting/ physiology</keyword></keywords><dates><year>2007</year></dates><isbn>0112-1642 (Print)&#xD;0112-1642 (Linking)</isbn><accession-num>17326698</accession-num><urls></urls><electronic-resource-num>3734 [pii]</electronic-resource-num><language>eng</language></record></Cite></EndNote>[ HYPERLINK  \l "_ENREF_24" \o "Wernbom, 2007 #209" 24]. Thus, it appears that on average, possibly due to our ambulatory nature, the lower body tends to respond in a slower fashion in terms of hypertrophy than that of the upper body in response to a similar number of repetitions per workout.
In a study of seventy untrained adults, both young and old, it was found that muscle size can be maintained with as low as one third the training volume that initially produced adaptation  ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Bickel</Author><Year>2011</Year><RecNum>232</RecNum><DisplayText>[34]</DisplayText><record><rec-number>232</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="5azfefs98rvw0me9a0u5szphda5tx59pev50">232</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Bickel, C. S.</author><author>Cross, J. M.</author><author>Bamman, M. M.</author></authors></contributors><auth-address>Department of Physical Therapy, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL 35294-0005, USA.</auth-address><titles><title>Exercise dosing to retain resistance training adaptations in young and older adults</title><secondary-title>Med Sci Sports Exerc</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise</full-title><abbr-1>Med. Sci. Sports Exerc.</abbr-1><abbr-2>Med Sci Sports Exerc</abbr-2><abbr-3>Medicine &amp; Science in Sports &amp; Exercise</abbr-3></periodical><pages>1177-87</pages><volume>43</volume><number>7</number><edition>2010/12/07</edition><keywords><keyword>Adaptation, Physiological</keyword><keyword>Adult</keyword><keyword>Aged</keyword><keyword>Aging/physiology</keyword><keyword>Female</keyword><keyword>Humans</keyword><keyword>Male</keyword><keyword>Middle Aged</keyword><keyword>Muscle Strength/physiology</keyword><keyword>Muscle, Skeletal/physiology</keyword><keyword>Resistance Training/ methods</keyword><keyword>Young Adult</keyword></keywords><dates><year>2011</year><pub-dates><date>Jul</date></pub-dates></dates><isbn>1530-0315 (Electronic)&#xD;0195-9131 (Linking)</isbn><accession-num>21131862</accession-num><urls></urls><electronic-resource-num>10.1249/MSS.0b013e318207c15d [doi]</electronic-resource-num><language>eng</language></record></Cite></EndNote>[ HYPERLINK  \l "_ENREF_34" \o "Bickel, 2011 #232" 34]. Thus, intermittent periods of lower volume training could be used as a recovery strategy between training cycles to help to prevent overtraining during contest preparation. 
Two to six sets per body part using hypertrophy repetition ranges with the appropriate combination of intensity and frequency of training appears to be the optimal balance for creating a hypertrophic stimulus. However, within this range, volume should be scaled according to overall training experience and differences in the response of specific muscle groups. Lastly, planned periods of reduced volume may allow recovery between cycles of training. This may be an especially useful approach during contest preparation as recovery will likely be impaired due to a decrease in caloric intake an increased volume of cardiovascular training.

Exercise Order
The order of exercise impacts adaption to resistance training. Greater volumes are accomplished with the first exercise performed  ADDIN EN.CITE  ADDIN EN.CITE.DATA [ HYPERLINK  \l "_ENREF_35" \o "Simao, 2012 #233" 35,  HYPERLINK  \l "_ENREF_36" \o "Sim�o, 2012 #292" 36]. Furthermore, the common practice by bodybuilders of �pre fatiguing� a muscle by training it in isolation first followed by training it with a compound lift, might not be effective at improving recruitment of the target muscle  ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Simao</Author><Year>2012</Year><RecNum>233</RecNum><DisplayText>[35]</DisplayText><record><rec-number>233</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="5azfefs98rvw0me9a0u5szphda5tx59pev50">233</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Simao, R.</author><author>de Salles, B. F.</author><author>Figueiredo, T.</author><author>Dias, I.</author><author>Willardson, J. M.</author></authors></contributors><auth-address>School of Physical Education and Sports, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. robertosimao@ufrj.br</auth-address><titles><title>Exercise order in resistance training</title><secondary-title>Sports Med</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Sports Medicine</full-title><abbr-1>Sports Med.</abbr-1><abbr-2>Sports Med</abbr-2></periodical><pages>251-65</pages><volume>42</volume><number>3</number><edition>2012/02/02</edition><dates><year>2012</year><pub-dates><date>Mar 1</date></pub-dates></dates><isbn>0112-1642 (Print)&#xD;0112-1642 (Linking)</isbn><accession-num>22292516</accession-num><urls></urls><electronic-resource-num>10.2165/11597240-000000000-00000 [doi]</electronic-resource-num><language>eng</language></record></Cite></EndNote>[ HYPERLINK  \l "_ENREF_35" \o "Simao, 2012 #233" 35]. More likely this practice augments the recruitment of synergists to make up for the fatigued prime mover. Exercise order should be prioritized on the needs of the competitor, as greater hypertrophy may be observed in muscle groups trained with the initial lift. Therefore, body parts that are lagging in the development of a proportional physique should be prioritized early in an exercise session. Prioritizing �weak points� during contest preparation early in the exercise session may help to minimize muscle loss in these areas which could worsen proportionality.

Inter-Set Rest interval
Increasing or decreasing inter-set rest intervals has a significant impact on the performance of subsequent sets as well as the hormonal response to exercise. Thirty to sixty second rest intervals increase acute growth hormone response and for this reason are frequently recommended for hypertrophy  ADDIN EN.CITE  ADDIN EN.CITE.DATA [ HYPERLINK  \l "_ENREF_37" \o "de Salles, 2009 #234" 37,  HYPERLINK  \l "_ENREF_38" \o "Willardson, 2006 #235" 38]. However, West et al.  ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>West</Author><Year>2011</Year><RecNum>236</RecNum><DisplayText>[39]</DisplayText><record><rec-number>236</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="5azfefs98rvw0me9a0u5szphda5tx59pev50">236</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>West, D. W.</author><author>Phillips, S. M.</author></authors></contributors><auth-address>Exercise Metabolism Research Group, Department of Kinesiology, McMaster University, 1280 Main St. West, Hamilton, ON, L8S 4K1, Canada.</auth-address><titles><title>Associations of exercise-induced hormone profiles and gains in strength and hypertrophy in a large cohort after weight training</title><secondary-title>Eur J Appl Physiol</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>European Journal of Applied Physiology</full-title><abbr-1>Eur. J. Appl. Physiol.</abbr-1><abbr-2>Eur J Appl Physiol</abbr-2></periodical><pages>2693-702</pages><volume>112</volume><number>7</number><edition>2011/11/23</edition><dates><year>2011</year><pub-dates><date>Nov 22</date></pub-dates></dates><isbn>1439-6327 (Electronic)&#xD;1439-6319 (Linking)</isbn><accession-num>22105707</accession-num><urls></urls><electronic-resource-num>10.1007/s00421-011-2246-z [doi]</electronic-resource-num><language>Eng</language></record></Cite></EndNote>[ HYPERLINK  \l "_ENREF_39" \o "West, 2011 #236" 39] showed that acute increases in anabolic hormones, such as free testosterone, growth hormone, and insulin-like growth factor 1, during training did not show a significant relationship with hypertrophy. De Souza  ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>de Souza</Author><Year>2010</Year><RecNum>237</RecNum><DisplayText>[40]</DisplayText><record><rec-number>237</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="5azfefs98rvw0me9a0u5szphda5tx59pev50">237</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>de Souza, T�cito P Jr</author><author>Fleck, Steven J</author><author>Sim�o, Roberto</author><author>Dubas, Jo�o P</author><author>Pereira, Benedito</author><author>de Brito Pacheco, Elisa M</author><author>da Silva, Antonio C</author><author>de Oliveira, Paulo R</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Comparison Between constant and decreasing rest intervals: influence on maximal strength and hypertrophy</title><secondary-title>Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research</full-title><abbr-1>J. Strength Cond. Res.</abbr-1><abbr-2>J Strength Cond Res</abbr-2><abbr-3>Journal of Strength &amp; Conditioning Research</abbr-3></periodical><pages>1843-1850 </pages><volume>24</volume><number>7</number><keywords><keyword>resistance training</keyword><keyword>rest periods</keyword><keyword>weight training</keyword><keyword>00124278-201007000-00020</keyword></keywords><dates><year>2010</year></dates><isbn>1064-8011</isbn><urls><related-urls><url>http://journals.lww.com/nsca-jscr/Fulltext/2010/07000/Comparison_Between_constant_and_decreasing_rest.20.aspx</url></related-urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>[ HYPERLINK  \l "_ENREF_40" \o "de Souza, 2010 #237" 40] showed no significant difference in muscle CSA, maximal strength or isokinetic peak torque to rest intervals of 2 minutes compared to decreasing rest intervals progressively from 2 minutes to 30 seconds. In addition, Buresh et al  ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Buresh</Author><Year>2009</Year><RecNum>238</RecNum><DisplayText>[41]</DisplayText><record><rec-number>238</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="5azfefs98rvw0me9a0u5szphda5tx59pev50">238</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Buresh, Robert</author><author>Berg, Kris</author><author>French, Jeffrey</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>The  effect of resistive exercise rest interval on hormonal response, strength, and hypertrophy with training</title><secondary-title>Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research</full-title><abbr-1>J. Strength Cond. Res.</abbr-1><abbr-2>J Strength Cond Res</abbr-2><abbr-3>Journal of Strength &amp; Conditioning Research</abbr-3></periodical><pages>62-71 </pages><volume>23</volume><number>1</number><keywords><keyword>growth hormone</keyword><keyword>testosterone</keyword><keyword>cortisol</keyword><keyword>bodybuilding</keyword><keyword>periodization</keyword><keyword>00124278-200901000-00011</keyword></keywords><dates><year>2009</year></dates><isbn>1064-8011</isbn><urls><related-urls><url>http://journals.lww.com/nsca-jscr/Fulltext/2009/01000/The_Effect_of_Resistive_Exercise_Rest_Interval_on.11.aspx</url></related-urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>[ HYPERLINK  \l "_ENREF_41" \o "Buresh, 2009 #238" 41] found no significant differences in strength or hypertrophy with 2.5 min rest intervals compared to 1 min rest intervals, despite greater acute anabolic hormonal responses during the shorter rest period training. Extending rest periods even further, Ahtiainen et al.  ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>AHTIAINEN</Author><Year>2005</Year><RecNum>239</RecNum><DisplayText>[42]</DisplayText><record><rec-number>239</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="5azfefs98rvw0me9a0u5szphda5tx59pev50">239</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Ahtiainen, Juha P.</author><author>Pakarinen, Arto</author><author>Alen, Markku</author><author>Kraemer, William J.</author><author>H�kkinen, Keijo</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Short vs.long rest period between the sets in hypertrophic resistance training: Influence on muscle strength, size, and hormonal adaptations in trained men</title><secondary-title>Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research</full-title><abbr-1>J. Strength Cond. Res.</abbr-1><abbr-2>J Strength Cond Res</abbr-2><abbr-3>Journal of Strength &amp; Conditioning Research</abbr-3></periodical><pages>572-582</pages><volume>19</volume><number>3</number><keywords><keyword>serum hormones</keyword><keyword>resistance exercise</keyword><keyword>muscle strength</keyword><keyword>electromyography</keyword><keyword>cross sectional area</keyword><keyword>dietary intake</keyword><keyword>00124278-200508000-00015</keyword></keywords><dates><year>2005</year></dates><isbn>1064-8011</isbn><urls><related-urls><url>http://journals.lww.com/nsca-jscr/Fulltext/2005/08000/Short_Vs_Long_Rest_Period_Between_the_Sets_in.15.aspx</url></related-urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>[ HYPERLINK  \l "_ENREF_42" \o "Ahtiainen, 2005 #239" 42] compared 2 minute rest periods to 5 minute rest periods in protocols of matched volume, with differing intensities. No significant differences in muscle size or strength were found. For this reason, the commonly recommended rest periods of one to two minutes for hypertrophy are likely acceptable however, longer rest intervals can be taken as needed to maintain volume and load, especially during contest preparation where recovery is more difficult due to increased volume of cardiovascular training and a decreased caloric intake.

Repetition Tempo
Changes in repetition tempo and speed alter the acute physiological response to resistance training  ADDIN EN.CITE  ADDIN EN.CITE.DATA [ HYPERLINK  \l "_ENREF_14" \o "Schoenfeld, 2010 #204" 14,  HYPERLINK  \l "_ENREF_43" \o "Headley, 2011 #240" 43,  HYPERLINK  \l "_ENREF_44" \o "Pryor, 2011 #241" 44]. With little exception  ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Westcott</Author><Year>2001</Year><RecNum>247</RecNum><DisplayText>[45]</DisplayText><record><rec-number>247</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="5azfefs98rvw0me9a0u5szphda5tx59pev50">247</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Westcott, W. L.</author><author>Winett, R. A.</author><author>Anderson, E. S.</author><author>Wojcik, J. R.</author><author>Loud, R. L.</author><author>Cleggett, E.</author><author>Glover, S.</author></authors></contributors><auth-address>South Shore YMCA, Quincy, Massachusetts, USA.</auth-address><titles><title>Effects of regular and slow speed resistance training on muscle strength</title><secondary-title>J Sports Med Phys Fitness</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Journal of Sports Medicine and Physical Fitness</full-title><abbr-1>J. Sports Med. Phys. Fitness</abbr-1><abbr-2>J Sports Med Phys Fitness</abbr-2><abbr-3>Journal of Sports Medicine &amp; Physical Fitness</abbr-3></periodical><pages>154-8</pages><volume>41</volume><number>2</number><edition>2001/07/12</edition><keywords><keyword>Adult</keyword><keyword>Aged</keyword><keyword>Aged, 80 and over</keyword><keyword>Analysis of Variance</keyword><keyword>Exercise</keyword><keyword>Female</keyword><keyword>Humans</keyword><keyword>Male</keyword><keyword>Middle Aged</keyword><keyword>Muscle, Skeletal/ physiology</keyword><keyword>Weight Lifting</keyword></keywords><dates><year>2001</year><pub-dates><date>Jun</date></pub-dates></dates><isbn>0022-4707 (Print)&#xD;0022-4707 (Linking)</isbn><accession-num>11447355</accession-num><urls></urls><language>eng</language></record></Cite></EndNote>[ HYPERLINK  \l "_ENREF_45" \o "Westcott, 2001 #247" 45], normal tempo, full contraction spectrum, traditional resistance training results in superior adaptations when compared to slow tempo training which necessitates lighter loads  ADDIN EN.CITE  ADDIN EN.CITE.DATA [ HYPERLINK  \l "_ENREF_46" \o "Hunter, 2003 #293" 46-50]. Thus, a tempo that maintains muscular tension during the concentric and eccentric phases without sacrificing load intensity may be optimal. However, with concern to minute alterations in tempo that do not alter the load the subject is able to use, it is unclear if tempo has a significant impact on hypertrophy  ADDIN EN.CITE  ADDIN EN.CITE.DATA [ HYPERLINK  \l "_ENREF_51" \o "Blazevich, 2007 #242" 51-53]. 
Often, conclusions about repetition tempo during the concentric and eccentric phases of lifts are made based upon studies examining concentric-only and eccentric-only training. When comparing eccentric training to concentric training, eccentric training elicits a greater hypertrophic response  ADDIN EN.CITE  ADDIN EN.CITE.DATA [ HYPERLINK  \l "_ENREF_24" \o "Wernbom, 2007 #209" 24,  HYPERLINK  \l "_ENREF_54" \o "Roig, 2009 #245" 54]. This could be caused by increased total volume as greater loads can be used in eccentric training  ADDIN EN.CITE  ADDIN EN.CITE.DATA [ HYPERLINK  \l "_ENREF_24" \o "Wernbom, 2007 #209" 24,  HYPERLINK  \l "_ENREF_44" \o "Pryor, 2011 #241" 44,  HYPERLINK  \l "_ENREF_54" \o "Roig, 2009 #245" 54], or by increased muscle damage which may impact muscle growth  ADDIN EN.CITE  ADDIN EN.CITE.DATA [ HYPERLINK  \l "_ENREF_55" \o "Brentano, 2011 #205" 55,  HYPERLINK  \l "_ENREF_56" \o "Schoenfeld, 2012 #206" 56]. That being said, eccentric or concentric-only studies may not provide appropriate data to inform contraction tempo for traditional resistance training which is neither eccentric nor concentric only. 
When emphasizing different tempos for the eccentric and concentric portions of each repetition, the results are mixed with regards to hypertrophy  ADDIN EN.CITE  ADDIN EN.CITE.DATA [ HYPERLINK  \l "_ENREF_45" \o "Westcott, 2001 #247" 45,  HYPERLINK  \l "_ENREF_51" \o "Blazevich, 2007 #242" 51-53,  HYPERLINK  \l "_ENREF_57" \o "Gillies, 2006 #246" 57]. Authors of a systematic review of training variables that influence hypertrophy  ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Wernbom</Author><Year>2007</Year><RecNum>209</RecNum><DisplayText>[24]</DisplayText><record><rec-number>209</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="5azfefs98rvw0me9a0u5szphda5tx59pev50">209</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Wernbom, M.</author><author>Augustsson, J.</author><author>Thomee, R.</author></authors></contributors><auth-address>mLundberg Laboratory for Human Muscle Function and Movement Analysis, Department of Orthopaedics, Sahlgrenska University Hospital, Goteborg University, Goteborg, Sweden. mathias.vernbom@orthop.gu.se</auth-address><titles><title>The influence of frequency, intensity, volume and mode of strength training on whole muscle cross-sectional area in humans</title><secondary-title>Sports Med</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Sports Medicine</full-title><abbr-1>Sports Med.</abbr-1><abbr-2>Sports Med</abbr-2></periodical><pages>225-64</pages><volume>37</volume><number>3</number><edition>2007/03/01</edition><keywords><keyword>Elbow/physiology</keyword><keyword>Humans</keyword><keyword>Leg/physiology</keyword><keyword>Muscle, Skeletal/ anatomy &amp; histology/ physiology</keyword><keyword>Physical Education and Training/ methods</keyword><keyword>Sex Factors</keyword><keyword>Torque</keyword><keyword>Weight Lifting/ physiology</keyword></keywords><dates><year>2007</year></dates><isbn>0112-1642 (Print)&#xD;0112-1642 (Linking)</isbn><accession-num>17326698</accession-num><urls></urls><electronic-resource-num>3734 [pii]</electronic-resource-num><language>eng</language></record></Cite></EndNote>[ HYPERLINK  \l "_ENREF_24" \o "Wernbom, 2007 #209" 24] and the most recent ACSM position stand on resistance training  ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Year>2009</Year><RecNum>225</RecNum><DisplayText>[31]</DisplayText><record><rec-number>225</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="5azfefs98rvw0me9a0u5szphda5tx59pev50">225</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>ACSM</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>American College of Sports Medicine position stand. Progression models in resistance training for healthy adults.</title><secondary-title>Medicine &amp; Science in Sports &amp; Exercise</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise</full-title><abbr-1>Med. Sci. Sports Exerc.</abbr-1><abbr-2>Med Sci Sports Exerc</abbr-2><abbr-3>Medicine &amp; Science in Sports &amp; Exercise</abbr-3></periodical><pages>687-708 </pages><volume>41</volume><number>3</number><keywords><keyword>strength</keyword><keyword>power</keyword><keyword>local muscular endurance</keyword><keyword>fitness</keyword><keyword>functional abilities</keyword><keyword>hypertrophy</keyword><keyword>health</keyword><keyword>performance</keyword><keyword>00005768-200903000-00026</keyword></keywords><dates><year>2009</year></dates><isbn>0195-9131</isbn><urls><related-urls><url>http://journals.lww.com/acsm-msse/Fulltext/2009/03000/Progression_Models_in_Resistance_Training_for.26.aspx</url></related-urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>[ HYPERLINK  \l "_ENREF_31" \o "ACSM, 2009 #225" 31] advise 1-2 second concentric and eccentric contractions during traditional resistance training for hypertrophy. However, in a recent review on the mechanisms of hypertrophy, Schoenfeld  ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Schoenfeld</Author><Year>2010</Year><RecNum>204</RecNum><DisplayText>[14]</DisplayText><record><rec-number>204</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="5azfefs98rvw0me9a0u5szphda5tx59pev50">204</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Schoenfeld, B. J.</author></authors></contributors><auth-address>Global Fitness Services, Scarsdale, New York, USA. brad@workout911.com</auth-address><titles><title>The mechanisms of muscle hypertrophy and their application to resistance training</title><secondary-title>J Strength Cond Res</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research</full-title><abbr-1>J. Strength Cond. Res.</abbr-1><abbr-2>J Strength Cond Res</abbr-2><abbr-3>Journal of Strength &amp; Conditioning Research</abbr-3></periodical><pages>2857-72</pages><volume>24</volume><number>10</number><edition>2010/09/18</edition><keywords><keyword>Cytokines/physiology</keyword><keyword>Female</keyword><keyword>Hormones/metabolism/physiology</keyword><keyword>Humans</keyword><keyword>Male</keyword><keyword>Muscle Development/ physiology</keyword><keyword>Muscle, Skeletal/ growth &amp; development</keyword><keyword>Resistance Training</keyword><keyword>Satellite Cells, Skeletal Muscle/physiology</keyword><keyword>Weight Lifting/ physiology</keyword></keywords><dates><year>2010</year><pub-dates><date>Oct</date></pub-dates></dates><isbn>1533-4287 (Electronic)&#xD;1064-8011 (Linking)</isbn><accession-num>20847704</accession-num><urls></urls><electronic-resource-num>10.1519/JSC.0b013e3181e840f3 [doi]</electronic-resource-num><language>eng</language></record></Cite></EndNote>[ HYPERLINK  \l "_ENREF_14" \o "Schoenfeld, 2010 #204" 14] advises 2-4 second eccentric contractions.
Some researchers have concluded that contraction mode may not be the primary determinant of muscle architectural adaptations  ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Blazevich</Author><Year>2007</Year><RecNum>242</RecNum><DisplayText>[51]</DisplayText><record><rec-number>242</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="5azfefs98rvw0me9a0u5szphda5tx59pev50">242</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Blazevich, A. J.</author><author>Cannavan, D.</author><author>Coleman, D. R.</author><author>Horne, S.</author></authors></contributors><auth-address>Centre for Sports Medicine and Human Performance, School of Sport and Education, Brunel Univ., Uxbridge UB8 3PH, UK. anthony.blazevich@brunel.ac.uk</auth-address><titles><title>Influence of concentric and eccentric resistance training on architectural adaptation in human quadriceps muscles</title><secondary-title>J Appl Physiol</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Journal of Applied Physiology</full-title><abbr-1>J. Appl. Physiol.</abbr-1><abbr-2>J Appl Physiol</abbr-2></periodical><pages>1565-75</pages><volume>103</volume><number>5</number><edition>2007/08/25</edition><keywords><keyword>Adaptation, Physiological</keyword><keyword>Adult</keyword><keyword>Cell Size</keyword><keyword>Exercise/ physiology</keyword><keyword>Female</keyword><keyword>Humans</keyword><keyword>Knee/ physiology</keyword><keyword>Male</keyword><keyword>Models, Biological</keyword><keyword>Muscle Contraction</keyword><keyword>Muscle Fibers, Skeletal/ physiology/ultrasonography</keyword><keyword>Muscle Strength</keyword><keyword>Quadriceps Muscle/ anatomy &amp; histology/cytology/ physiology/ultrasonography</keyword><keyword>Range of Motion, Articular</keyword><keyword>Time Factors</keyword><keyword>Torque</keyword></keywords><dates><year>2007</year><pub-dates><date>Nov</date></pub-dates></dates><isbn>8750-7587 (Print)&#xD;0161-7567 (Linking)</isbn><accession-num>17717119</accession-num><urls></urls><electronic-resource-num>00578.2007 [pii]&#xD;10.1152/japplphysiol.00578.2007 [doi]</electronic-resource-num><language>eng</language></record></Cite></EndNote>[ HYPERLINK  \l "_ENREF_51" \o "Blazevich, 2007 #242" 51] and training with slow speed concentric versus eccentric contractions does not significantly alter rate of force production  ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Blazevich</Author><Year>2008</Year><RecNum>243</RecNum><DisplayText>[52]</DisplayText><record><rec-number>243</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="5azfefs98rvw0me9a0u5szphda5tx59pev50">243</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Blazevich, A. J.</author><author>Horne, S.</author><author>Cannavan, D.</author><author>Coleman, D. R.</author><author>Aagaard, P.</author></authors></contributors><auth-address>School of Exercise, Biomedical and Health Sciences, Edith Cowan University, 100 Joondalup Drive, Joondalup, WA 6027, Australia. a.blazevich@ecu.edu.au</auth-address><titles><title>Effect of contraction mode of slow-speed resistance training on the maximum rate of force development in the human quadriceps</title><secondary-title>Muscle Nerve</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Muscle and Nerve</full-title><abbr-1>Muscle Nerve</abbr-1><abbr-2>Muscle Nerve</abbr-2><abbr-3>Muscle &amp; Nerve</abbr-3></periodical><pages>1133-46</pages><volume>38</volume><number>3</number><edition>2008/07/22</edition><keywords><keyword>Adaptation, Physiological/ physiology</keyword><keyword>Adolescent</keyword><keyword>Adult</keyword><keyword>Electromyography/methods</keyword><keyword>Exercise/ physiology</keyword><keyword>Female</keyword><keyword>Humans</keyword><keyword>Knee/innervation</keyword><keyword>Male</keyword><keyword>Muscle Contraction/ physiology</keyword><keyword>Muscle Strength/ physiology</keyword><keyword>Quadriceps Muscle/ physiology</keyword><keyword>Statistics as Topic</keyword><keyword>Time Factors</keyword></keywords><dates><year>2008</year><pub-dates><date>Sep</date></pub-dates></dates><isbn>0148-639X (Print)&#xD;0148-639X (Linking)</isbn><accession-num>18642358</accession-num><urls></urls><electronic-resource-num>10.1002/mus.21021 [doi]</electronic-resource-num><language>eng</language></record></Cite></EndNote>[ HYPERLINK  \l "_ENREF_52" \o "Blazevich, 2008 #243" 52]. In a study comparing moderate speed eccentric contractions (2 seconds) to slower eccentric contractions (4 seconds), heavier loads, greater work, and greater responses in IGF-1 occurred with moderate speed eccentric contractions  ADDIN EN.CITE  ADDIN EN.CITE.DATA [ HYPERLINK  \l "_ENREF_43" \o "Headley, 2011 #240" 43]. Notably, metabolic stress, muscle damage and other factors that are effected by tempo which influence hypertrophy  ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Schoenfeld</Author><Year>2010</Year><RecNum>204</RecNum><DisplayText>[14]</DisplayText><record><rec-number>204</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="5azfefs98rvw0me9a0u5szphda5tx59pev50">204</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Schoenfeld, B. J.</author></authors></contributors><auth-address>Global Fitness Services, Scarsdale, New York, USA. brad@workout911.com</auth-address><titles><title>The mechanisms of muscle hypertrophy and their application to resistance training</title><secondary-title>J Strength Cond Res</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research</full-title><abbr-1>J. Strength Cond. Res.</abbr-1><abbr-2>J Strength Cond Res</abbr-2><abbr-3>Journal of Strength &amp; Conditioning Research</abbr-3></periodical><pages>2857-72</pages><volume>24</volume><number>10</number><edition>2010/09/18</edition><keywords><keyword>Cytokines/physiology</keyword><keyword>Female</keyword><keyword>Hormones/metabolism/physiology</keyword><keyword>Humans</keyword><keyword>Male</keyword><keyword>Muscle Development/ physiology</keyword><keyword>Muscle, Skeletal/ growth &amp; development</keyword><keyword>Resistance Training</keyword><keyword>Satellite Cells, Skeletal Muscle/physiology</keyword><keyword>Weight Lifting/ physiology</keyword></keywords><dates><year>2010</year><pub-dates><date>Oct</date></pub-dates></dates><isbn>1533-4287 (Electronic)&#xD;1064-8011 (Linking)</isbn><accession-num>20847704</accession-num><urls></urls><electronic-resource-num>10.1519/JSC.0b013e3181e840f3 [doi]</electronic-resource-num><language>eng</language></record></Cite></EndNote>[ HYPERLINK  \l "_ENREF_14" \o "Schoenfeld, 2010 #204" 14] were not measured in this study. Thus, highly specific guidelines for lifting tempo, especially for the eccentric portion, cannot yet be made without further research. 
What can be concluded is that extremes on either end of the lifting tempo spectrum are likely sub optimal for hypertrophy. Furthermore, muscle should control the weight during the concentric phase and muscle, not gravity, should lower the weight during the eccentric portion. Thus, in the context of loads used for hypertrophy training, 1-2s concentric and 2-3s eccentric tempos should likely be used for the majority of training phases during contest preparation  ADDIN EN.CITE  ADDIN EN.CITE.DATA [ HYPERLINK  \l "_ENREF_24" \o "Wernbom, 2007 #209" 24,  HYPERLINK  \l "_ENREF_31" \o "ACSM, 2009 #225" 31,  HYPERLINK  \l "_ENREF_43" \o "Headley, 2011 #240" 43].

Training to Failure
While not required to produce hypertrophy  ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Willardson</Author><Year>2007</Year><RecNum>248</RecNum><DisplayText>[58]</DisplayText><record><rec-number>248</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="5azfefs98rvw0me9a0u5szphda5tx59pev50">248</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Willardson, J. M.</author></authors></contributors><auth-address>Physical Education Department, Eastern Illinois University, Charleston, Illinois 61920, USA. jmwillardson@eiu.edu</auth-address><titles><title>The application of training to failure in periodized multiple-set resistance exercise programs</title><secondary-title>J Strength Cond Res</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research</full-title><abbr-1>J. Strength Cond. Res.</abbr-1><abbr-2>J Strength Cond Res</abbr-2><abbr-3>Journal of Strength &amp; Conditioning Research</abbr-3></periodical><pages>628-31</pages><volume>21</volume><number>2</number><edition>2007/05/29</edition><keywords><keyword>Adaptation, Physiological</keyword><keyword>Exercise/ physiology</keyword><keyword>Humans</keyword><keyword>Muscle Fatigue/ physiology</keyword><keyword>Muscle, Skeletal/ physiology</keyword><keyword>Physical Education and Training/ methods</keyword></keywords><dates><year>2007</year><pub-dates><date>May</date></pub-dates></dates><isbn>1064-8011 (Print)&#xD;1064-8011 (Linking)</isbn><accession-num>17530977</accession-num><urls></urls><electronic-resource-num>R-20426 [pii]&#xD;10.1519/R-20426.1 [doi]</electronic-resource-num><language>eng</language></record></Cite></EndNote>[ HYPERLINK  \l "_ENREF_58" \o "Willardson, 2007 #248" 58], training to failure causes increased activation of motor units and muscle fibers. Therefore, it may have potential as a method of achieving hypertrophy. However, because of the demand of training to failure it should be planned for, cycled into training and used sparingly during contest preparation to avoid injury or negative performance effects  ADDIN EN.CITE  ADDIN EN.CITE.DATA [ HYPERLINK  \l "_ENREF_14" \o "Schoenfeld, 2010 #204" 14,  HYPERLINK  \l "_ENREF_58" \o "Willardson, 2007 #248" 58]. If improperly implemented, training to failure can alter the ability of the lifter to train with the optimal frequency, volume or intensity if the fatigue generated is too high  ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Wernbom</Author><Year>2007</Year><RecNum>209</RecNum><DisplayText>[24]</DisplayText><record><rec-number>209</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="5azfefs98rvw0me9a0u5szphda5tx59pev50">209</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Wernbom, M.</author><author>Augustsson, J.</author><author>Thomee, R.</author></authors></contributors><auth-address>mLundberg Laboratory for Human Muscle Function and Movement Analysis, Department of Orthopaedics, Sahlgrenska University Hospital, Goteborg University, Goteborg, Sweden. mathias.vernbom@orthop.gu.se</auth-address><titles><title>The influence of frequency, intensity, volume and mode of strength training on whole muscle cross-sectional area in humans</title><secondary-title>Sports Med</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Sports Medicine</full-title><abbr-1>Sports Med.</abbr-1><abbr-2>Sports Med</abbr-2></periodical><pages>225-64</pages><volume>37</volume><number>3</number><edition>2007/03/01</edition><keywords><keyword>Elbow/physiology</keyword><keyword>Humans</keyword><keyword>Leg/physiology</keyword><keyword>Muscle, Skeletal/ anatomy &amp; histology/ physiology</keyword><keyword>Physical Education and Training/ methods</keyword><keyword>Sex Factors</keyword><keyword>Torque</keyword><keyword>Weight Lifting/ physiology</keyword></keywords><dates><year>2007</year></dates><isbn>0112-1642 (Print)&#xD;0112-1642 (Linking)</isbn><accession-num>17326698</accession-num><urls></urls><electronic-resource-num>3734 [pii]</electronic-resource-num><language>eng</language></record></Cite></EndNote>[ HYPERLINK  \l "_ENREF_24" \o "Wernbom, 2007 #209" 24]. Despite potential benefits, if fatigue reduces the number of repetitions or loads used in subsequent sets, exercises or training sessions, it could negatively impact hypertrophy over time. Thus, training to failure should be used in a focused, planned manner and considered an advanced training technique  ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Schoenfeld</Author><Year>2011</Year><RecNum>303</RecNum><DisplayText>[59]</DisplayText><record><rec-number>303</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="5azfefs98rvw0me9a0u5szphda5tx59pev50">303</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Schoenfeld, Brad</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>The use of specialized training techniques to maximize muscle hypertrophy</title><secondary-title>Strength and Conditioning Journal</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Strength and Conditioning Journal</full-title><abbr-1>Strength Cond J</abbr-1></periodical><pages>60-65 </pages><volume>33</volume><number>4</number><keywords><keyword>forced repetitions</keyword><keyword>drop sets</keyword><keyword>supersets</keyword><keyword>paired sets</keyword><keyword>heavy negatives</keyword><keyword>muscle hypertrophy</keyword><keyword>muscle development</keyword><keyword>00126548-201108000-00011</keyword></keywords><dates><year>2011</year></dates><isbn>1524-1602</isbn><urls><related-urls><url>http://journals.lww.com/nsca-scj/Fulltext/2011/08000/The_Use_of_Specialized_Training_Techniques_to.11.aspx</url></related-urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>[ HYPERLINK  \l "_ENREF_59" \o "Schoenfeld, 2011 #303" 59], rather than utilized haphazardly, especially during contest preparation.
Although previous discussion seems to not necessarily support regular training to failure, there are potential uses for regular training to failure in the context of bodybuilding. Compared to multi-joint exercises, lifts for isolated muscle groups cause lower levels of perceived exertion  ADDIN EN.CITE  ADDIN EN.CITE.DATA [ HYPERLINK  \l "_ENREF_60" \o "Ramires Alsamir, 2011 #304" 60], neural recruitment  ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Kraemer</Author><Year>2002</Year><RecNum>307</RecNum><DisplayText>[61]</DisplayText><record><rec-number>307</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="5azfefs98rvw0me9a0u5szphda5tx59pev50">307</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Kraemer, W. J.</author><author>Ratamess, N. A.</author><author>French, D. N.</author></authors></contributors><auth-address>The Human Performance Laboratory, Department of Kinesiology, Unit 1110, The University of Connecticut, Storrs, CT 06269-1110, USA. kraemer@uconnvm.uconn.edu</auth-address><titles><title>Resistance training for health and performance</title><secondary-title>Curr Sports Med Rep</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Current Sports Medicine Reports</full-title><abbr-1>Curr. Sports Med. Rep.</abbr-1><abbr-2>Curr Sports Med Rep</abbr-2></periodical><pages>165-71</pages><volume>1</volume><number>3</number><edition>2003/07/02</edition><keywords><keyword>Exercise/*physiology</keyword><keyword>*Health Status</keyword><keyword>Humans</keyword><keyword>Physical Education and Training/*methods</keyword><keyword>Physical Fitness/physiology</keyword><keyword>Risk Factors</keyword></keywords><dates><year>2002</year><pub-dates><date>Jun</date></pub-dates></dates><isbn>1537-890X (Print)&#xD;1537-890X (Linking)</isbn><accession-num>12831709</accession-num><urls><related-urls><url>http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12831709</url></related-urls></urls><language>eng</language></record></Cite></EndNote>[ HYPERLINK  \l "_ENREF_61" \o "Kraemer, 2002 #307" 61] and hormonal response  ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Kraemer</Author><Year>2005</Year><RecNum>309</RecNum><DisplayText>[62]</DisplayText><record><rec-number>309</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="5azfefs98rvw0me9a0u5szphda5tx59pev50">309</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Kraemer, W. J.</author><author>Ratamess, N. A.</author></authors></contributors><auth-address>Human Performance Laboratory, Department of Kinesiology, University of Connecticut, Storrs, 06269, USA. William.Kraemer@uconn.edu</auth-address><titles><title>Hormonal responses and adaptations to resistance exercise and training</title><secondary-title>Sports Med</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Sports Medicine</full-title><abbr-1>Sports Med.</abbr-1><abbr-2>Sports Med</abbr-2></periodical><pages>339-61</pages><volume>35</volume><number>4</number><edition>2005/04/16</edition><keywords><keyword>*Adaptation, Physiological</keyword><keyword>Circadian Rhythm/physiology</keyword><keyword>Hormones/physiology/*secretion</keyword><keyword>Humans</keyword><keyword>Hydrocortisone/physiology/secretion</keyword><keyword>Somatomedins/physiology/secretion</keyword><keyword>United States</keyword><keyword>Weight Lifting/*physiology</keyword></keywords><dates><year>2005</year></dates><isbn>0112-1642 (Print)&#xD;0112-1642 (Linking)</isbn><accession-num>15831061</accession-num><urls><related-urls><url>http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15831061</url></related-urls></urls><electronic-resource-num>3544 [pii]</electronic-resource-num><language>eng</language></record></Cite></EndNote>[ HYPERLINK  \l "_ENREF_62" \o "Kraemer, 2005 #309" 62] and as a result recovery from these exercises is quicker and they are therefore considered less demanding  ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Bird</Author><Year>2005</Year><RecNum>305</RecNum><DisplayText>[63]</DisplayText><record><rec-number>305</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="5azfefs98rvw0me9a0u5szphda5tx59pev50">305</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Bird, Stephen P</author><author>Tarpenning, Kyle M</author><author>Marino, Frank E</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Designing resistance training programmes to enhance muscular fitness: a review of the acute programme variables</title><secondary-title>Sports Medicine</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Sports Medicine</full-title><abbr-1>Sports Med.</abbr-1><abbr-2>Sports Med</abbr-2></periodical><pages>841-851</pages><volume>35</volume><number>10</number><keywords><keyword>Fitness programmes</keyword><keyword>Resistance training</keyword><keyword>00007256-200535100-00002</keyword></keywords><dates><year>2005</year></dates><isbn>0112-1642</isbn><urls><related-urls><url>http://adisonline.com/sportsmedicine/Fulltext/2005/35100/Designing_Resistance_Training_Programmes_to.2.aspx</url></related-urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>[ HYPERLINK  \l "_ENREF_63" \o "Bird, 2005 #305" 63]. Also, lower repetitions with heavier loads emphasize mechanical tension and high levels of neurological recruitment, while higher repetition sets with lighter loads produce more metabolic fatigue  ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Schoenfeld</Author><Year>2000</Year><RecNum>302</RecNum><DisplayText>[64]</DisplayText><record><rec-number>302</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="5azfefs98rvw0me9a0u5szphda5tx59pev50">302</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Schoenfeld, Brad</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Repetitions and muscle hypertrophy</title><secondary-title>Strength and Conditioning Journal</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Strength and Conditioning Journal</full-title><abbr-1>Strength Cond J</abbr-1></periodical><pages>67</pages><volume>22</volume><number>6</number><keywords><keyword>repetitions</keyword><keyword>muscular mass</keyword><keyword>00126548-200012000-00017</keyword></keywords><dates><year>2000</year></dates><isbn>1524-1602</isbn><urls><related-urls><url>http://journals.lww.com/nsca-scj/Fulltext/2000/12000/Repetitions_and_Muscle_Hypertrophy.17.aspx</url></related-urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>[ HYPERLINK  \l "_ENREF_64" \o "Schoenfeld, 2000 #302" 64]. Thus, the recovery period of higher repetition, isolated muscle group training may be less than heavy, multi joint training. Therefore, one might optimize the benefits and minimize the downsides of training to failure during contest preparation by utilizing this technique primarily with single joint exercises in higher repetition ranges.

Exercise Form
While the quantitative variables listed largely determine the adaptations that training produces, the quality of the training should not be ignored. Targeted hypertrophy can only be achieved if the intended muscle is activated and overloaded. Snyder et al.  ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Snyder</Author><Year>2009</Year><RecNum>249</RecNum><DisplayText>[65]</DisplayText><record><rec-number>249</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="5azfefs98rvw0me9a0u5szphda5tx59pev50">249</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Snyder, B. J.</author><author>Leech, J. R.</author></authors></contributors><auth-address>Department of Physical Education, University of South Carolina Upstate, Spartanburg, South Carolina, USA. bsnyder@uscupstate.edu</auth-address><titles><title>Voluntary increase in latissimus dorsi muscle activity during the lat pull-down following expert instruction</title><secondary-title>J Strength Cond Res</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research</full-title><abbr-1>J. Strength Cond. Res.</abbr-1><abbr-2>J Strength Cond Res</abbr-2><abbr-3>Journal of Strength &amp; Conditioning Research</abbr-3></periodical><pages>2204-9</pages><volume>23</volume><number>8</number><edition>2009/10/15</edition><keywords><keyword>Adolescent</keyword><keyword>Adult</keyword><keyword>Arm/ physiology</keyword><keyword>Back/ physiology</keyword><keyword>Electromyography</keyword><keyword>Female</keyword><keyword>Humans</keyword><keyword>Muscle Contraction/physiology</keyword><keyword>Muscle, Skeletal/ physiology</keyword><keyword>Resistance Training/ methods</keyword></keywords><dates><year>2009</year><pub-dates><date>Nov</date></pub-dates></dates><isbn>1533-4287 (Electronic)&#xD;1064-8011 (Linking)</isbn><accession-num>19826307</accession-num><urls></urls><electronic-resource-num>10.1519/JSC.0b013e3181bb7213 [doi]</electronic-resource-num><language>eng</language></record></Cite></EndNote>[ HYPERLINK  \l "_ENREF_65" \o "Snyder, 2009 #249" 65] found activation of the latissimus dorsi was increased by 17.6% when lat pull-downs were performed after expert instruction compared to performance without prior instruction. Furthermore, a full range of motion was shown to be superior in terms of increasing muscle girth compared to a partial range of motion in the elbow flexors (9.6% vs. 7.8% increase)  ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Ronei</Author><Year>2011</Year><RecNum>250</RecNum><DisplayText>[66]</DisplayText><record><rec-number>250</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="5azfefs98rvw0me9a0u5szphda5tx59pev50">250</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Ronei, P. S.</author><author>Gomes, N.</author><author>Radaelli, R.</author><author>Botton, C. E.</author><author>Brown, L. E.</author><author>Bottaro, M.</author></authors></contributors><auth-address>1Physical Education School, Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul, RS, Brazil; 2Department of Kinesiology, California State University, Fullerton, CA, USA.; 3College of Physical Education, University of Brasilia, DF, Brazil.</auth-address><titles><title>Effect of range of motion on muscle strength and thickness</title><secondary-title>J Strength Cond Res</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research</full-title><abbr-1>J. Strength Cond. Res.</abbr-1><abbr-2>J Strength Cond Res</abbr-2><abbr-3>Journal of Strength &amp; Conditioning Research</abbr-3></periodical><edition>2011/10/27</edition><dates><year>2011</year><pub-dates><date>Oct 24</date></pub-dates></dates><isbn>1533-4287 (Electronic)&#xD;1064-8011 (Linking)</isbn><accession-num>22027847</accession-num><urls></urls><electronic-resource-num>10.1519/JSC.0b013e31823a3b15 [doi]</electronic-resource-num><language>Eng</language></record></Cite></EndNote>[ HYPERLINK  \l "_ENREF_66" \o "Ronei, 2011 #250" 66]. Thus, it may be best for bodybuilders to use proper form and full range of motion to enhance hypertrophy. Furthermore, bodybuilders sometimes exhibit limited joint range of motion  ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Barlow</Author><Year>2002</Year><RecNum>251</RecNum><DisplayText>[67]</DisplayText><record><rec-number>251</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="5azfefs98rvw0me9a0u5szphda5tx59pev50">251</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Barlow, J. C.</author><author>Benjamin, B. W.</author><author>Birt, P.</author><author>Hughes, C. J.</author></authors></contributors><auth-address>Graduate School of Physical Therapy, Slippery Rock University, Pennsylvania 16057, USA. joshbarlow@prexar.com</auth-address><titles><title>Shoulder strength and range-of-motion characteristics in bodybuilders</title><secondary-title>J Strength Cond Res</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research</full-title><abbr-1>J. Strength Cond. Res.</abbr-1><abbr-2>J Strength Cond Res</abbr-2><abbr-3>Journal of Strength &amp; Conditioning Research</abbr-3></periodical><pages>367-72</pages><volume>16</volume><number>3</number><edition>2002/08/14</edition><keywords><keyword>Adult</keyword><keyword>Humans</keyword><keyword>Male</keyword><keyword>Range of Motion, Articular/ physiology</keyword><keyword>Shoulder Joint/ physiology</keyword><keyword>Weight Lifting/ physiology</keyword></keywords><dates><year>2002</year><pub-dates><date>Aug</date></pub-dates></dates><isbn>1064-8011 (Print)&#xD;1064-8011 (Linking)</isbn><accession-num>12173950</accession-num><urls></urls><language>eng</language></record></Cite></EndNote>[ HYPERLINK  \l "_ENREF_67" \o "Barlow, 2002 #251" 67], therefore full range of motion training and a balance of strength across muscle groups may prevent injury during training. 
Skeletal muscles are often compartmentalized  ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Woodley</Author><Year>2005</Year><RecNum>348</RecNum><DisplayText>[68]</DisplayText><record><rec-number>348</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="5azfefs98rvw0me9a0u5szphda5tx59pev50">348</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Woodley, S. J.</author><author>Mercer, S. R.</author></authors></contributors><auth-address>Musculoskeletal Research Group, Department of Anatomy and Structural Biology, University of Otago, Dunedin, New Zealand. stephanie.woodley@anatomy.otago.ac.nz</auth-address><titles><title>Hamstring muscles: architecture and innervation</title><secondary-title>Cells, Tissues, Organs</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Cells, Tissues, Organs</full-title><abbr-1>Cells Tissues Organs</abbr-1><abbr-2>Cells Tissues Organs</abbr-2></periodical><pages>125-41</pages><volume>179</volume><number>3</number><edition>2005/06/11</edition><keywords><keyword>Aged</keyword><keyword>Aged, 80 and over</keyword><keyword>Female</keyword><keyword>Humans</keyword><keyword>Male</keyword><keyword>Muscle, Skeletal/*anatomy &amp; histology/cytology/innervation</keyword><keyword>Neuromuscular Junction/anatomy &amp; histology/cytology</keyword><keyword>Tendons/*anatomy &amp; histology/cytology</keyword><keyword>Thigh/*anatomy &amp; histology/innervation</keyword></keywords><dates><year>2005</year></dates><isbn>1422-6405 (Print)&#xD;1422-6405 (Linking)</isbn><accession-num>15947463</accession-num><urls><related-urls><url>http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15947463</url></related-urls></urls><electronic-resource-num>85004 [pii]&#xD;10.1159/000085004</electronic-resource-num><language>eng</language></record></Cite></EndNote>[ HYPERLINK  \l "_ENREF_68" \o "Woodley, 2005 #348" 68], and different compartments are preferentially activated based on joint position and angle  ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Glass</Author><Year>1997</Year><RecNum>349</RecNum><DisplayText>[69]</DisplayText><record><rec-number>349</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="5azfefs98rvw0me9a0u5szphda5tx59pev50">349</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Glass, S. C.</author><author>Armstrong, T.</author></authors></contributors><auth-address>Glass, SC&#xD;Wayne State Coll,Human Performance Lab,Wayne,Ne 68787, USA&#xD;Wayne State Coll,Human Performance Lab,Wayne,Ne 68787, USA</auth-address><titles><title>Electromyographical activity of the pectoralis muscle during incline and decline bench presses</title><secondary-title>Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research</secondary-title><alt-title>J Strength Cond Res</alt-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research</full-title><abbr-1>J. Strength Cond. Res.</abbr-1><abbr-2>J Strength Cond Res</abbr-2><abbr-3>Journal of Strength &amp; Conditioning Research</abbr-3></periodical><alt-periodical><full-title>Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research</full-title><abbr-1>J. Strength Cond. Res.</abbr-1><abbr-2>J Strength Cond Res</abbr-2><abbr-3>Journal of Strength &amp; Conditioning Research</abbr-3></alt-periodical><pages>163-167</pages><volume>11</volume><number>3</number><keywords><keyword>motor unit recruitment</keyword><keyword>weight training</keyword><keyword>human motor units</keyword><keyword>isometric contractions</keyword><keyword>recruitment</keyword><keyword>emg</keyword></keywords><dates><year>1997</year><pub-dates><date>Aug</date></pub-dates></dates><isbn>1064-8011</isbn><accession-num>ISI:A1997XP78000006</accession-num><urls><related-urls><url>&lt;Go to ISI&gt;://A1997XP78000006</url></related-urls></urls><electronic-resource-num>Doi 10.1519/1533-4287(1997)011&lt;0163:Eaotpm&gt;2.3.Co;2</electronic-resource-num><language>English</language></record></Cite></EndNote>[ HYPERLINK  \l "_ENREF_69" \o "Glass, 1997 #349" 69]. Thus, reviewers of hypertrophy training have recommended a wide exercise variety and frequent exercise rotation based on the fact that variations in angle, plane of motion and grip position can change muscle activation patterns and may therefore maximize hypertrophy  ADDIN EN.CITE  ADDIN EN.CITE.DATA [ HYPERLINK  \l "_ENREF_14" \o "Schoenfeld, 2010 #204" 14,  HYPERLINK  \l "_ENREF_70" \o "Antonio, 2000 #298" 70]. However, no studies have been performed which compare hypertrophy programs of similar volume, intensity and frequency with varied exercise selection to test this logic and to provide a quantitative prescription on the number of exercises that should be performed. In absence of this data a broad recommendation to use a wide variety of exercises may seem acceptable, but could be detrimental if taken to extremes. 
The initial strength gains seen when performing new exercises are predominantly attributed to neuromuscular adaptation  ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Seynnes</Author><Year>2007</Year><RecNum>456</RecNum><DisplayText>[71]</DisplayText><record><rec-number>456</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="5azfefs98rvw0me9a0u5szphda5tx59pev50">456</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Seynnes, O. R.</author><author>de Boer, M.</author><author>Narici, M. V.</author></authors></contributors><auth-address>Institute for Biophysical and Clinical Research Into Human Movement, Manchester Metropolitan University, Hassall Rd., Alsager ST7 2HL, UK. o.seynnes@mmu.ac.uk</auth-address><titles><title>Early skeletal muscle hypertrophy and architectural changes in response to high-intensity resistance training</title><secondary-title>Journal of Applied Physiology</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Journal of Applied Physiology</full-title><abbr-1>J. Appl. Physiol.</abbr-1><abbr-2>J Appl Physiol</abbr-2></periodical><pages>368-73</pages><volume>102</volume><number>1</number><edition>2006/10/21</edition><keywords><keyword>Adolescent</keyword><keyword>Adult</keyword><keyword>Electromyography</keyword><keyword>Ergometry</keyword><keyword>Exercise/*physiology</keyword><keyword>Female</keyword><keyword>Humans</keyword><keyword>Hypertrophy/etiology/pathology/physiopathology</keyword><keyword>Magnetic Resonance Imaging</keyword><keyword>Male</keyword><keyword>Muscle Contraction/physiology</keyword><keyword>Muscle, Skeletal/*pathology/*physiopathology</keyword><keyword>Time Factors</keyword><keyword>Weight Lifting/physiology</keyword></keywords><dates><year>2007</year><pub-dates><date>Jan</date></pub-dates></dates><isbn>8750-7587 (Print)&#xD;0161-7567 (Linking)</isbn><accession-num>17053104</accession-num><urls><related-urls><url>http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17053104</url></related-urls></urls><electronic-resource-num>00789.2006 [pii]&#xD;10.1152/japplphysiol.00789.2006</electronic-resource-num><language>eng</language></record></Cite></EndNote>[ HYPERLINK  \l "_ENREF_71" \o "Seynnes, 2007 #456" 71]. As the movement skill is acquired and becomes more fine-tuned over time, the muscle can be exposed to increased loading, aiding morphological adaptations as training continues  ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Fry</Author><Year>2004</Year><RecNum>457</RecNum><DisplayText>[72]</DisplayText><record><rec-number>457</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="5azfefs98rvw0me9a0u5szphda5tx59pev50">457</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Fry, A. C.</author></authors></contributors><auth-address>Human Performance Laboratories, The University of Memphis, Memphis, Tennessee 38152, USA. afry@memphis.edu</auth-address><titles><title>The role of resistance exercise intensity on muscle fibre adaptations</title><secondary-title>Sports Medicine</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Sports Medicine</full-title><abbr-1>Sports Med.</abbr-1><abbr-2>Sports Med</abbr-2></periodical><pages>663-79</pages><volume>34</volume><number>10</number><edition>2004/09/01</edition><keywords><keyword>*Adaptation, Physiological</keyword><keyword>Body Composition/physiology</keyword><keyword>Exercise/*physiology</keyword><keyword>Humans</keyword><keyword>Hypertrophy/physiopathology</keyword><keyword>Muscle Contraction/*physiology</keyword><keyword>Muscle Development/*physiology</keyword><keyword>Muscle Fibers, Skeletal/*physiology</keyword><keyword>Muscle, Skeletal/physiology</keyword><keyword>Weight Lifting/*physiology</keyword></keywords><dates><year>2004</year></dates><isbn>0112-1642 (Print)&#xD;0112-1642 (Linking)</isbn><accession-num>15335243</accession-num><urls><related-urls><url>http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15335243</url></related-urls></urls><electronic-resource-num>34104 [pii]</electronic-resource-num><language>eng</language></record></Cite></EndNote>[ HYPERLINK  \l "_ENREF_72" \o "Fry, 2004 #457" 72]. Therefore, while training with greater exercise variety may theoretically increase hypertrophy more than training with a limited exercise selection, if the frequency of exercise rotation is taken too far a bodybuilder may spend more time developing motor skills with sub optimal loads than eliciting a hypertrophic response. 
A middle of the road approach might be the optimal strategy to maximize hypertrophy. Multi-joint movements recruit large amounts of muscle mass as prime movers, synergists and stabilizers, and single joint movements can be used to address specific lagging body parts or asymmetries  ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Schoenfeld</Author><Year>2010</Year><RecNum>204</RecNum><DisplayText>[14]</DisplayText><record><rec-number>204</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="5azfefs98rvw0me9a0u5szphda5tx59pev50">204</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Schoenfeld, B. J.</author></authors></contributors><auth-address>Global Fitness Services, Scarsdale, New York, USA. brad@workout911.com</auth-address><titles><title>The mechanisms of muscle hypertrophy and their application to resistance training</title><secondary-title>J Strength Cond Res</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research</full-title><abbr-1>J. Strength Cond. Res.</abbr-1><abbr-2>J Strength Cond Res</abbr-2><abbr-3>Journal of Strength &amp; Conditioning Research</abbr-3></periodical><pages>2857-72</pages><volume>24</volume><number>10</number><edition>2010/09/18</edition><keywords><keyword>Cytokines/physiology</keyword><keyword>Female</keyword><keyword>Hormones/metabolism/physiology</keyword><keyword>Humans</keyword><keyword>Male</keyword><keyword>Muscle Development/ physiology</keyword><keyword>Muscle, Skeletal/ growth &amp; development</keyword><keyword>Resistance Training</keyword><keyword>Satellite Cells, Skeletal Muscle/physiology</keyword><keyword>Weight Lifting/ physiology</keyword></keywords><dates><year>2010</year><pub-dates><date>Oct</date></pub-dates></dates><isbn>1533-4287 (Electronic)&#xD;1064-8011 (Linking)</isbn><accession-num>20847704</accession-num><urls></urls><electronic-resource-num>10.1519/JSC.0b013e3181e840f3 [doi]</electronic-resource-num><language>eng</language></record></Cite></EndNote>[ HYPERLINK  \l "_ENREF_14" \o "Schoenfeld, 2010 #204" 14]. An approach utilizing a core group of multi-joint movements for the majority of training with some adjunct single joint movements to reach the target volume for any given body part is suggested. This may make training more efficient, which could be crucial during contest preparation when recuperation is more difficult.
 
Cardiovascular Training 
	Weight loss is achieved when energy expenditure exceeds energy intake.  This can be achieved through reduction in caloric intake; however, an adequate caloric intake must be provided in order to preserve physical and mental health and to maintain fat free mass.  Caloric restriction alone may not be enough for competitors to achieve extreme levels of body fat loss required for competition.  Therefore, cardio is often performed to increase energy expenditure and further weight loss.  This section will review the published studies on endurance training as applied to bodybuilding.  Issues of interference of endurance and strength training, intensity of cardiovascular training, and fed versus fasted cardiovascular training will be discussed.

Interference
	Interference in the context of this article refers to a reduction in strength, power, and/or hypertrophy when endurance training is added to a strength training protocol  ADDIN EN.CITE  ADDIN EN.CITE.DATA [ HYPERLINK  \l "_ENREF_73" \o "Wilson, 2011 #252" 73].  Interference is thought to occur as a result of conflicting responses to strength or endurance training such as differences in fiber type transformations and changes in motor recruitment.  Additionally, endurance training may result in reduced muscle glycogen content or may impair recovery, both of which may inhibit performance during strength/hypertrophy training  ADDIN EN.CITE  ADDIN EN.CITE.DATA [ HYPERLINK  \l "_ENREF_74" \o "Nader, 2006 #253" 74,  HYPERLINK  \l "_ENREF_75" \o "Leveritt, 1999 #254" 75].  Numerous studies have found that endurance training results in significant decrements in muscle strength and/or hypertrophy when added to strength training  ADDIN EN.CITE  ADDIN EN.CITE.DATA [ HYPERLINK  \l "_ENREF_76" \o "Dolezal, 1998 #255" 76-79]; however, not all studies have observed such findings  ADDIN EN.CITE  ADDIN EN.CITE.DATA [ HYPERLINK  \l "_ENREF_80" \o "Balabinis, 2003 #259" 80,  HYPERLINK  \l "_ENREF_81" \o "McCarthy, 2002 #260" 81].  The discrepancies in these studies may be due to the quantity, intensity, and/or modality of the endurance exercise protocol added to a strength training program.  A recent meta-analysis of 21 studies examining the effects of concurrent training on muscle strength and hypertrophy found a significant negative correlation between hypertrophy, strength, and power and the number (r = -0.26, r = -0.31, r = -0.35, respectively) and length (r = -0.75, r = -0.34, r = -0.29, respectively) of cardiovascular training sessions performed weekly  ADDIN EN.CITE  ADDIN EN.CITE.DATA [ HYPERLINK  \l "_ENREF_73" \o "Wilson, 2011 #252" 73].  Interestingly, interference was body part-specific.  For example, when running or cycling was performed, significant decrements in muscle strength and hypertrophy were only observed in the lower body.  In addition, modality of cardiovascular training was shown to play a role in interference. Running resulted in significant decrements in both strength and hypertrophy; however, cycling did not, possibly due a lesser eccentric component in cycling which may have resulted in less muscle damage.  Overall, it appears that interference can be minimized by performing the lowest number and duration of cardio sessions per week. However, some cardio may need to be performed in order to achieve minimal body fat levels. Thus, when cardio is performed, utilizing full-body exercises (e.g. light weight cleans or kettle bells) or cycling may be more preferable to running to prevent interference.  Temporally separating cardio from strength training sessions and separating body parts trained during cardio and strength training workouts (e.g. upper body cardio, lower body strength training) may further reduce interference.

Intensity
	The ideal intensity of cardio for fat loss during contest preparation is highly debated.  High intensity cardio provides many benefits including similar adaptations to low-intensity cardio such as skeletal muscle mitochondrial biogenesis, muscle oxidative capacity and buffering capacity, but in less exercise time  ADDIN EN.CITE  ADDIN EN.CITE.DATA [ HYPERLINK  \l "_ENREF_82" \o "Little, 2010 #261" 82,  HYPERLINK  \l "_ENREF_83" \o "Gibala, 2006 #262" 83].  Moreover, high intensity cardio may result in reduced interference with strength training  ADDIN EN.CITE  ADDIN EN.CITE.DATA [ HYPERLINK  \l "_ENREF_73" \o "Wilson, 2011 #252" 73,  HYPERLINK  \l "_ENREF_84" \o "Rhea, 2008 #263" 84], and significantly increased post-exercise oxygen consumption  ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Borsheim</Author><Year>2003</Year><RecNum>264</RecNum><DisplayText>[85]</DisplayText><record><rec-number>264</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="5azfefs98rvw0me9a0u5szphda5tx59pev50">264</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Borsheim, E.</author><author>Bahr, R.</author></authors></contributors><auth-address>Norwegian University of Sport and Physical Education, Oslo, Norway. elboersh@utmb.edu</auth-address><titles><title>Effect of exercise intensity, duration and mode on post-exercise oxygen consumption</title><secondary-title>Sports Med</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Sports Medicine</full-title><abbr-1>Sports Med.</abbr-1><abbr-2>Sports Med</abbr-2></periodical><pages>1037-60</pages><volume>33</volume><number>14</number><edition>2003/11/06</edition><keywords><keyword>Adaptation, Physiological/*physiology</keyword><keyword>Exercise/*physiology</keyword><keyword>Female</keyword><keyword>Humans</keyword><keyword>Male</keyword><keyword>Oxygen Consumption/*physiology</keyword><keyword>Physical Education and Training/methods</keyword><keyword>Physical Endurance/physiology</keyword><keyword>Sex Factors</keyword><keyword>Sports/physiology</keyword><keyword>Time Factors</keyword></keywords><dates><year>2003</year></dates><isbn>0112-1642 (Print)&#xD;0112-1642 (Linking)</isbn><accession-num>14599232</accession-num><work-type>Review</work-type><urls><related-urls><url>http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/14599232</url></related-urls></urls><language>eng</language></record></Cite></EndNote>[ HYPERLINK  \l "_ENREF_85" \o "Borsheim, 2003 #264" 85] when compared to low intensity cardio.  In addition to the aforementioned benefits, high intensity cardio burns primarily carbohydrate during exercise.  It has been suggested that if more carbohydrates are burned during exercise, more fat is burned throughout the rest of the day and vice-versa  ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Schoenfeld</Author><Year>2011</Year><RecNum>265</RecNum><DisplayText>[86]</DisplayText><record><rec-number>265</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="5azfefs98rvw0me9a0u5szphda5tx59pev50">265</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Schoenfeld, B.</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Does cardio after an overnight fast maximize fat loss?</title><secondary-title>Strength and Conditioning Journal</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Strength and Conditioning Journal</full-title><abbr-1>Strength Cond J</abbr-1></periodical><pages>23-25</pages><volume>33</volume><number>1</number><dates><year>2011</year></dates><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>[ HYPERLINK  \l "_ENREF_86" \o "Schoenfeld, 2011 #265" 86].  Indeed, a study comparing 20 weeks of high intensity interval exercise to low intensity exercise found significantly increased activities of many enzymes involved in fat oxidation and significantly increased fat loss with high-intensity interval training compared with low-intensity endurance training (-14 mm vs. -5 mm on a 6 site skin-fold test, respectively)  ADDIN EN.CITE  ADDIN EN.CITE.DATA [ HYPERLINK  \l "_ENREF_87" \o "Tremblay, 1994 #266" 87].  However, it should be noted that the body composition measurements were performed with skin-fold calipers and a description of the researchers performing the measurements was not given, thus, the results of this study need to be replicated using more precise body composition measurements.  Although high intensity cardio provides many benefits to dieting bodybuilders, it may be more difficult to recover from high intensity cardio and it may not be appropriate for everyone due to individual recovery rates.  Therefore, high intensity cardio should be performed if possible; however, the selection of cardio intensity should be based on individual recovery rates.

Fasted Cardiovascular Exercise   
	Many bodybuilders perform cardio in the fasted state in an attempt to increase fat oxidation and lose additional body fat; however, the scientific literature does not support additional benefits of fasted cardio.  In fact, increased nitrogen loss, equivalent to nearly 14 gm of amino acids per hour has been observed during 60 minutes of fasted cardio  ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Lemon</Author><Year>1980</Year><RecNum>146</RecNum><DisplayText>[88]</DisplayText><record><rec-number>146</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="f50f0s52vvrt9he5twv5d5a4aa00taaaxr2v">146</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Lemon, P. W.</author><author>Mullin, J. P.</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Effect of initial muscle glycogen levels on protein catabolism during exercise</title><secondary-title>Journal of Applied Physiology</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Journal of Applied Physiology</full-title></periodical><pages>624-629</pages><volume>48</volume><number>4</number><dates><year>1980</year><pub-dates><date>April 1, 1980</date></pub-dates></dates><urls><related-urls><url>http://jap.physiology.org/content/48/4/624.abstract</url></related-urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>[ HYPERLINK  \l "_ENREF_88" \o "Lemon, 1980 #146" 88].  However, it should be noted that the authors could not identify the source of the nitrogen nor is it known if the increase in amino acid oxidation has a long-term effect if amino acids are replenished after exercise.  Additionally, studies examining the effects of carbohydrate consumption prior to cardio on fat oxidation during exercise have shown mixed results.  Some studies have found that carbohydrate consumption prior to cardio significantly reduces fat oxidation during exercise  ADDIN EN.CITE  ADDIN EN.CITE.DATA [ HYPERLINK  \l "_ENREF_89" \o "Coyle, 1997 #268" 89-91] while others have shown that pre-exercise carbohydrate consumption has no significant effect on fat oxidation during exercise  ADDIN EN.CITE  ADDIN EN.CITE.DATA [ HYPERLINK  \l "_ENREF_92" \o "Febbraio, 2000 #271" 92,  HYPERLINK  \l "_ENREF_93" \o "Horowitz, 1999 #272" 93].  However, acute changes in fat oxidation during exercise are not as important as the total fat oxidation over the course of the day and, as previously discussed, if more carbohydrates are oxidized during exercise, more fat is oxidized throughout the course of the day  ADDIN EN.CITE  ADDIN EN.CITE.DATA [ HYPERLINK  \l "_ENREF_86" \o "Schoenfeld, 2011 #265" 86,  HYPERLINK  \l "_ENREF_94" \o "Hansen, 2005 #273" 94].  Therefore, consumption of carbohydrates prior to exercise resulting in a decreased fat oxidation during exercise may actually result in increased fat oxidation throughout the day  ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Schoenfeld</Author><Year>2011</Year><RecNum>265</RecNum><DisplayText>[86]</DisplayText><record><rec-number>265</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="5azfefs98rvw0me9a0u5szphda5tx59pev50">265</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Schoenfeld, B.</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Does cardio after an overnight fast maximize fat loss?</title><secondary-title>Strength and Conditioning Journal</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Strength and Conditioning Journal</full-title><abbr-1>Strength Cond J</abbr-1></periodical><pages>23-25</pages><volume>33</volume><number>1</number><dates><year>2011</year></dates><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>[ HYPERLINK  \l "_ENREF_86" \o "Schoenfeld, 2011 #265" 86].  
	The effects of carbohydrate intake prior to endurance exercise on exercise performance have also shown mixed results with researchers reporting increased  ADDIN EN.CITE  ADDIN EN.CITE.DATA [ HYPERLINK  \l "_ENREF_92" \o "Febbraio, 2000 #271" 92,  HYPERLINK  \l "_ENREF_95" \o "van Essen, 2006 #274" 95] or no difference  ADDIN EN.CITE  ADDIN EN.CITE.DATA [ HYPERLINK  \l "_ENREF_96" \o "Palmer, 1998 #275" 96,  HYPERLINK  \l "_ENREF_97" \o "Snyder, 1993 #276" 97] in performance.  Interestingly, branched chain amino acid consumption prior to endurance exercise has been shown to increase fat oxidation and increase time to fatigue by 17%  ADDIN EN.CITE  ADDIN EN.CITE.DATA [ HYPERLINK  \l "_ENREF_98" \o "Gualano, 2011 #277" 98].  However, additional studies are needed to verify this finding and long-term studies need to conclusively determine if fasted cardio results in additional fat and/or muscle loss than fed cardio, especially in trained athletes at extremely low levels of body fat, such as competitive bodybuilders.  
	The ideal form of endurance training for dieting bodybuilders has not been conclusively determined due to a lack of long-term studies comparing endurance training protocols and modalities in athletes.  Based on the available data, it is recommended that bodybuilders perform the lowest number and duration of cardio sessions possible (while still meeting their need to maximally reduce subcutaneous body fat) to reduce interference with strength training.  Either full-body cardio or cycling may be preferred to further reduce interference.  High intensity cardio is recommended if possible, however, the intensity of cardio performed should be determined by individual recovery needs.  Additionally, although fasted cardio may increase fatty acid oxidation during exercise, there is little evidence that fasted cardio increases fat loss long-term.  If anything, fasted cardio may be detrimental due to increased amino acid oxidation and reduced performance during exercise.  Therefore, it is not recommended that fasted cardio be performed by bodybuilders preparing for contest.  Overall, long-term studies are needed to conclusively determine the ideal cardio protocol for dieting bodybuilders.

Conclusions:	
With the increasing popularity of natural bodybuilding, and the relative lack of evidence-based information for bodybuilding competition, the recommendations herein can provide the framework for designing training plans for natural competitive bodybuilders. However, the successful reduction of body fat to levels seen in competitive bodybuilding requires an intense focus on diet and nutrition. Therefore, this article should not be used as a comprehensive set of guidelines for competitive bodybuilding, but rather in conjunction with appropriate nutritional strategies for maintaining LBM and maximizing subcutaneous fat loss. Furthermore, the relative paucity of research utilizing natural bodybuilders as participants necessitates that many of the recommendations herein be based on logical conjecture from long-term studies on skeletal muscle hypertrophy and body fat loss in dieting human populations. In the absence of such studies, acute studies were selected.
We encourage future research to be undertaken on natural bodybuilders in the contest preparation phase to broaden these guidelines and confirm the efficacy of the recommendations.  Furthermore, this review focuses on the traditional resistance training approach and acute variables as they relate to hypertrophy. However, there are intriguing nontraditional concepts related to maximizing hypertrophy such as utilizing active aerobic recovery during the inter-set rest interval  ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Mohamad</Author><Year>2012</Year><RecNum>745</RecNum><DisplayText>[99]</DisplayText><record><rec-number>745</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="5azfefs98rvw0me9a0u5szphda5tx59pev50">745</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Mohamad, Nur Ikhwan</author><author>Cronin, John</author><author>Nosaka, Kazunori</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Brief review: Maximizing hypertrophic adaptation�Possible contributions of aerobic exercise in the interset rest period</title><secondary-title>Strength and Conditioning Journal</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Strength and Conditioning Journal</full-title><abbr-1>Strength Cond J</abbr-1></periodical><pages>8-15 </pages><volume>34</volume><number>1</number><keywords><keyword>active recovery</keyword><keyword>hypertrophy</keyword><keyword>mechanical</keyword><keyword>metabolic</keyword><keyword>hormonal</keyword><keyword>neural</keyword><keyword>strength training</keyword><keyword>00126548-201202000-00002</keyword></keywords><dates><year>2012</year></dates><isbn>1524-1602</isbn><urls><related-urls><url>http://journals.lww.com/nsca-scj/Fulltext/2012/02000/Brief_Review__Maximizing_Hypertrophic.2.aspx</url></related-urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>[ HYPERLINK  \l "_ENREF_99" \o "Mohamad, 2012 #745" 99], or providing a stretch induced tension stimulus in addition to traditional resistance training  ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Mohamad</Author><Year>2011</Year><RecNum>746</RecNum><DisplayText>[100]</DisplayText><record><rec-number>746</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="5azfefs98rvw0me9a0u5szphda5tx59pev50">746</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Mohamad, Nur Ikhwan</author><author>Nosaka, Kazunori</author><author>Cronin, John</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Maximizing Hypertrophy: Possible Contribution of Stretching in the Interset Rest Period</title><secondary-title>Strength and Conditioning Journal</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Strength and Conditioning Journal</full-title><abbr-1>Strength Cond J</abbr-1></periodical><pages>81-87 </pages><volume>33</volume><number>1</number><keywords><keyword>hypertrophy</keyword><keyword>stretching</keyword><keyword>rest period</keyword><keyword>time under tension</keyword><keyword>stretch-induced hypertrophy</keyword><keyword>00126548-201102000-00013</keyword></keywords><dates><year>2011</year></dates><isbn>1524-1602</isbn><urls><related-urls><url>http://journals.lww.com/nsca-scj/Fulltext/2011/02000/Maximizing_Hypertrophy__Possible_Contribution_of.13.aspx</url></related-urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>[ HYPERLINK  \l "_ENREF_100" \o "Mohamad, 2011 #746" 100] that merit future study. Finally, trainers and athletes reading these recommendations should always take care to assess the individual response to exercise and adjust accordingly to maximize results. 
	
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E.</author><author>Pronk, N. P.</author><author>Jacobsen, D. J.</author><author>Pronk, S. J.</author><author>Jakicic, J. M.</author></authors></contributors><auth-address>Human Performance Lab, Kearney State College, NE.</auth-address><titles><title>Effects of a very-low-calorie diet and physical-training regimens on body composition and resting metabolic rate in obese females</title><secondary-title>Am J Clin Nutr</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>American Journal of Clinical Nutrition</full-title><abbr-1>Am. J. Clin. Nutr.</abbr-1><abbr-2>Am J Clin Nutr</abbr-2></periodical><pages>56-61</pages><volume>54</volume><number>1</number><edition>1991/07/01</edition><keywords><keyword>Basal Metabolism</keyword><keyword>Body Composition</keyword><keyword>Diet, Reducing</keyword><keyword>Energy Intake</keyword><keyword>Exercise/ physiology</keyword><keyword>Female</keyword><keyword>Humans</keyword><keyword>Obesity/ diet therapy/metabolism</keyword><keyword>Oxygen Consumption</keyword><keyword>Weight Loss</keyword></keywords><dates><year>1991</year><pub-dates><date>Jul</date></pub-dates></dates><isbn>0002-9165 (Print)&#xD;0002-9165 (Linking)</isbn><accession-num>2058588</accession-num><urls></urls><language>eng</language></record></Cite><Cite><Author>Gornall</Author><Year>1996</Year><RecNum>185</RecNum><record><rec-number>185</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="5azfefs98rvw0me9a0u5szphda5tx59pev50">185</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Gornall, J.</author><author>Villani, R. G.</author></authors></contributors><auth-address>Department of Human Movement Science, Royal Melbourne Institute of Technology, Victoria, Australia.</auth-address><titles><title>Short-term changes in body composition and metabolism with severe dieting and resistance exercise</title><secondary-title>Int J Sport Nutr</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>International Journal of Sport Nutrition</full-title><abbr-1>Int. J. Sport Nutr.</abbr-1><abbr-2>Int J Sport Nutr</abbr-2></periodical><pages>285-94</pages><volume>6</volume><number>3</number><edition>1996/09/01</edition><keywords><keyword>Absorptiometry, Photon</keyword><keyword>Adipose Tissue</keyword><keyword>Adult</keyword><keyword>Basal Metabolism</keyword><keyword>Body Composition</keyword><keyword>Body Water</keyword><keyword>Calorimetry, Indirect</keyword><keyword>Diet, Reducing</keyword><keyword>Electric Impedance</keyword><keyword>Female</keyword><keyword>Humans</keyword><keyword>Premenopause</keyword><keyword>Weight Lifting/ physiology</keyword></keywords><dates><year>1996</year><pub-dates><date>Sep</date></pub-dates></dates><isbn>1050-1606 (Print)&#xD;1050-1606 (Linking)</isbn><accession-num>8876348</accession-num><urls></urls><language>eng</language></record></Cite></EndNote>sD���y������K�	_ENREF_3sD���y������K�	_ENREF_4�D<EndNote><Cite><Author>Ballor</Author><Year>1988</Year><RecNum>187</RecNum><DisplayText>[5-9]</DisplayText><record><rec-number>187</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="5azfefs98rvw0me9a0u5szphda5tx59pev50">187</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Ballor, D. L.</author><author>Katch, V. L.</author><author>Becque, M. D.</author><author>Marks, C. R.</author></authors></contributors><auth-address>Department of Kinesiology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor.</auth-address><titles><title>Resistance weight training during caloric restriction enhances lean body weight maintenance</title><secondary-title>Am J Clin Nutr</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>American Journal of Clinical Nutrition</full-title><abbr-1>Am. J. Clin. Nutr.</abbr-1><abbr-2>Am J Clin Nutr</abbr-2></periodical><pages>19-25</pages><volume>47</volume><number>1</number><edition>1988/01/01</edition><keywords><keyword>Adult</keyword><keyword>Arm/radiography</keyword><keyword>Body Composition</keyword><keyword>Body Weight</keyword><keyword>Combined Modality Therapy</keyword><keyword>Diet, Reducing</keyword><keyword>Energy Intake</keyword><keyword>Energy Metabolism</keyword><keyword>Female</keyword><keyword>Humans</keyword><keyword>Obesity/physiopathology/therapy</keyword><keyword>Physical Education and Training/ methods</keyword><keyword>Skinfold Thickness</keyword><keyword>Sports</keyword><keyword>Time Factors</keyword><keyword>Weight Lifting</keyword></keywords><dates><year>1988</year><pub-dates><date>Jan</date></pub-dates></dates><isbn>0002-9165 (Print)&#xD;0002-9165 (Linking)</isbn><accession-num>3337037</accession-num><urls></urls><language>eng</language></record></Cite><Cite><Author>Kraemer</Author><Year>1999</Year><RecNum>191</RecNum><record><rec-number>191</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="5azfefs98rvw0me9a0u5szphda5tx59pev50">191</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Kraemer, W. 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