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	Group Randomized Trial of a novel physical education program to increase physical fitness and motor skills in children

Authors: Louise A. Kelly1*, Antonio S. McNeil1, Brittany Kennedy1, Blake Carney1, Marcus McKinnon1, Andrew Atkins1, Malcolm Mostoles1, Emily Hnath1, Derick Welsh1, Spencer Wendt1, Kathryn Wallace 1, Jane Rider1

Affiliations: 1Department of Exercise Science, California Lutheran University, Thousand Oaks, California, 93065, US.

*Author for correspondence and guarantor
Dr Louise A. Kelly, PhD, Assistant Professor, California Lutheran University, #3400, 60 W. Olsen Road, Thousand Oaks, California 91360 US
Tel:  001 805-493-3547
Fax: 001 805-493-3860
E-mail:  HYPERLINK "mailto:jjr2y@clinmed.gla.ac.uk" lakelly@clunet.edu

Running Header: Obesity prevention in children
Key Words: Young children, school based intervention, physical activity, fitness, fundamental movement skills
Conflicts of interest:  None
Word Count: 3028
Author Contributions: Dr. Kelly and Dr. Rider had full access to all of the data in the study and take responsibility for the integrity of the data and the accuracy of the data analyses.
Study concept and design:  Drs Kelly and Rider
Acquisition of data: McNeil, Kennedy, McKinnon, Atkins, Mostoles, Hnath, Carney, Welsh, Wendt, Wallace.
Analysis and interpretation of data: Drs Kelly and Rider
Drafting of the manuscript: All authors contributed to the drafting of the manuscript 
Critical revision of the manuscript for important intellectual content: Drs Kelly, Rider, McNeil, Kennedy, McKinnon, Atkins, Mostoles, Hnath, Carney, Welsh, Wendt, Wallace.
Statistical analysis: Kelly
Obtaining funding: N/A
Administrative, technical, or material support: McNeil, Kennedy, McKinnon, Atkins, Mostoles, Hnath, Carney, Welsh, Wendt, Wallace.
Study supervision: Kelly Rider
Support: None reported.

Ethics:  The Institutional Review Board of the California Lutheran University approved this study, and all procedures were performed in accordance with standards outlined in the Helsinki Declaration.

Financial Disclosers: None reported.
Data Sharing: There is no additional data available
ABSTRACT

OBJECTIVE: The aims of the present pilot study are three-fold, (a) to test the efficacy of the intervention by comparing schools allocated to the interventions vs. control school and (b) to investigate whether an elementary school based, structured physical education program could improve physical fitness and motor skill performance and decrease adiposity in children, (c) to examine the physiological health effects, and motor skill improvement, in an 8-week teacher lead novel school based physical activity intervention compared to a physical education specialist group.
METHODS: 8-week single blinded group randomized trial, 224 children (age 9.93 � 2.09) were randomly assigned to 1) Control (C;n= 47); 2) Teacher Led (TL;n=76), or 3) Physical Education specialist led (PESL;n=94). TL and the PESL groups received 100 minutes of physical activity per week, and C received standard curriculum. Movement skills, physical Fitness, BMI percentiles and waist/hip circumference were measured pre and post intervention. ANCOVA with post-hoc pairwise comparisons assessed across intervention group effects. RESULTS: A significant overall intervention effect was found for trunk lift (P<0.01), sit and reach (P<0.01), kick (P=0.008), ball bounce (P=0.007), leap (P=0.004), punt (P<0.001), and Two - hand strike (P=0.039). CONCLUSION: The program appears promising as a population-based approach to increasing physical fitness and enhancing motor skills performance in children.

 INTRODUCTION

Today nearly one-third of U.S. children and teens are overweight or obese (Ogden et al. 2006) (defined as BMI >95th percentile on the CDC growth charts). Persistent obesity in childhood may be responsible for a great deal of ill-health in both childhood and adulthood, such as accelerated skeletal development (Davidson et al. 2003), accelerated puberty (Denzer et al. 2007), type 2 diabetes (Sinha et al. 2002; Weigensberg et al. 2003), hypertension (Sorof et al. 2002), cardiovascular disease (Welk et al. 2008; Daniels et al. 1999; Davis et al. 2002; Anderson et al. 2003; S��kslahti et al. 2004) and decreased movement skills. Research suggests that physical activity contributes significantly to the reduction of obesity along with associated health (Bernstein et al. 1994; Grundy et al., 1999). Furthermore, health behaviors and physical activity track (Kelly et al., 2007), therefore, it may be prudent to invest our resources to prevent adverse health from occurring in our young population. This has led to the suggestion that interventions to promote physical activity in young children might be an appropriate, population based approach to prevention of obesity and related chronic diseases (Lee et al. 2007, National Association for Sport and Physical Education and American Hearth Association 2006).

Schools potentially serve as effective settings for public health initiates, as they have access to large populations of children from diverse ethnic and socio-economic backgrounds. Furthermore, many experts stress the important role of schools in providing opportunities for regular activity among children and teens. It is recommended that children should engage in 60 minutes of physical activity at a moderate intensity most days of the week. Unfortunately, most children get little to no regular physical activity at home (Kelly et al. 2005) or in school. However, in response to budget cuts and pressure to improve academic test scores, physical activity in schools has been significantly reduced or even eliminated (National Association for Sport and Physical Education and American Hearth Association 2006). In the state of California it is mandated that elementary school children must engage in 100 minutes of physical activity per week. Unfortunately, current research suggests that only 3.8 percent of elementary schools provide daily physical education (Lee et al. 207). In response to the decline of physical activity educators in schools, other methodologies of delivering physical activity to children are necessary. 

The aims of the present pilot study are three-fold, (a) to test the efficacy of the intervention by comparing schools allocated to the interventions vs. control school and (b) to investigate whether an elementary school based, structured physical education program could improve physical fitness and motor skill performance and decrease adiposity in children, (c) to examine the physiological health effects, and motor skill improvement, in an 8-week teacher lead novel school based physical activity intervention compared to a physical education specialist group.





METHODS

Design and Subjects 
In 2010 we invited all elementary schools from Moorpark, California (n=6) to participate in the Gameday trial. While all 6 schools consented to the study, three schools were randomly selected to participate. A physical activity program (Gameday, Youth Gameday Sport & Education LLC, Simi Valley, CA) was implemented in 2 of the elementary schools. One school was randomized to the PE specialist-training group (PE), the other the Teacher Led training group (T); the third school was the control (C). Schools were representative of the city of Moorpark in terms of socio-economic status (SES). Randomization of individual children within schools was impractical because complete separation of children into intervention and control groups would not have been possible; participants were therefore randomized by school. Participants for the present study were 224 4- to 11-y-old children from Kindergarten, 2nd and 5th grades.. All parents gave written informed consent for their child to participate, and children gave their assent. California Lutheran University�s Research Ethics Committee approved the study.

Blinding
The field researchers were blinded to school allocations (intervention or control) with the exception of the physical activity specialist who acted as a liaison between the research team and schools. 


Description of Interventions

Control/Delayed Intervention
The school randomized to the control group will receive no intervention between pre- and post-data collection. The rationale for including controls in this pilot study is to assess �background changes� due to growth and/or other natural factors. After post tests the control group received the Gameday program, however, no testing was conducted after they received the Gameday program.

Teacher Led and Specialist Led Intervention.
Children in both intervention groups received 2 x 50 minute sessions per week from the Gameday program with a rotating plan of 8 activities designed to increase, physical fitness, concepts of fitness and improve motor skills such as kicking, dribbling with feet, dribbling with hands, jumping landing, and running. The intervention was delivered over an 8-week period. Teachers from schools randomized into the teacher lead intervention received 3 days of training from the Gameday company. The other intervention school was provided with a PE specialist from the Gameday company. Both intervention schools participated in 100 minutes of the per-prescribed physical activity per week.

Outcome Measures
Effects of the intervention on the following variables were be measured at Pre- (week 0) and post intervention (week 9).

Anthropometric Measurements:
Weight and height were measured to the nearest 0.1 kg and 0.1 cm, respectively, using a beam medical scale and wall-mounted stadiometer. Body mass index (BMI) and BMI percentiles for age and gender were determined using EpiInfo Version 1.1 � 2.0 (CDC, Atlanta, GA). Waist and hip circumferences were assessed (to the nearest 0.5 cm) using anthropmetric tape measure. All anthropometric data were collected in accordance with Canadian Standardized Test of Fitness procedures (Canadian Standardized Test of Fitness (CSTF), Operations Manual. Ottawa: Government of Canada, Fitness, and Amateur Sport, 1986). 

Assessment of Physical Fitness and Motor Skill
The FITNESSGRAM� program was used to evaluate cardiorespiratory and muscular fitness. The FITNESSGRAM� program was developed by the Cooper Institute and has been used as the used as the recommended assessment tool and promotion program for the American Alliance for Health, Physical Education, Recreation and Dance (AAHPERD) and the required assessment for the state of California and many other states and districts. The FITNESSGRAM� program has been widely supported and adopted, in large because of its strong scientific foundation (Welk et al. 2008; Zwiauer et al. 1992). Participants were asked to perform a number of tests which included the 90 �degree push-up test, curl-up for abdominal strength, sit and reach test for flexibility, 1- mile walk/run for cardiovascular fitness. 

Six fundamental motor skills were assessed: run, vertical jump, catch, overhand throw, forehand strike and kick, and were assessed using an 11 item fundamental movement skill test which has been described in detail elsewhere (Holland 1986). Qualitative, rather than quantitative, assessment of fundamental movement skills were employed because qualitative assessment methods are not influenced but the strength of the student and allow identification of problems with the execution of the fundamental motor skill. The qualitative components of each of these skills was assessed by the research assistants by scoring each of the components as present or absent on four out of five trials (Shepard 1997). 

A total of twelve research assistants were used in the study. The impact of using more than one observer was assessed formally assessed, inter - observer differences of < 4% were achieved consistently between the trained observer and the research assistants. All research assistants who took part in the study of inter-observer agreement took part in the subsequent study, which is reported here.

Statistical analysis
In order to identify possible imbalances in randomization, ANOVA�s were used to compare baseline characteristics across groups.  Except for hip circumferences, no differences were found. Subsequent intent to treat analyses found no statistical differences in outcomes with and without controlling for baseline hip circumference as a potential confounder. 

The overall effects of the interventions were tested for evaluable participants using analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) on the post-pre change score, after controlling for pre-test values and pre-planned covariates. Covariates included age and gender. Change scores were evaluated for normality and transformations were made if needed. When significant differences across groups were identified, post hoc pairwise comparisons with Bonferroni adjustments were conducted. Statistical analyses were performed using SPSS (Mac version 18.0) and an alpha of 0.05 for all statistics.

Process evaluation
We assessed the process of implementation of the intervention by the TL and the PESL schools by requesting that they record each physical activity session delivered, and attendance by children. 

Results

Characteristics of Participants
Of the 310 potential subjects who were available for consenting, 224 participants were consented.  At post testing seven participants did not complete the study due to absence on the day of testing. Therefore, 217 completed the program (evaluable participants), 47 in the C group, 76 in the TL group, and 94 in the PESL group. Participants were 7.9 � 2.1 years of age, and 54% were female. The complete flow of participants can be seen in Figure 1. Consort diagram.
Place Figure 1 here 
Figure 1 Here 

Anthropometric Measurements
There were no significant group differences across the intervention groups in gender, age, weight, BMI, BMI percentile, hip circumference, waist circumference, or hip/waist ratio for the evaluable participants (all P >0.05). Table 1 presents the anthropometric outcomes for the evaluable participants stratified by intervention group. 

Place Table 1 Here 

Fundamental Movement Skills Variables
Table 2 presents the movement skills outcomes for the evaluable participants stratified by intervention group. There was significance across the group effect for kick, ball bounce, leap, punt and two-hand strike (all p�s <0.05). Post hoc comparisons showed that the PESL increased significantly more than the TL (0.51, p=0.26) and the C group (0.59, p=0.31). For the run there was a significant increase in the TL group compared with the C group (0.51, p=0.006), and a trend for an increase in the TL compared to the PESL group (0.31, p=0.064). For ball bounce the PESL group significantly increased compared to the C only (0.57, p=0.003). The TL group significantly improved in the dodge compared with the C (0.82, p<0.001), and the PESL group (0.38, p=0.021). The PESL group also significantly improved in the dodge compared with the C group (1.20, p<0.001). For the punt the PESL group significantly improved compared with the C (1.26, p<0.001), and the TL groups (1.30, p<0.001). For the forehand strike the TL group improved significantly more than the PESL (0.58, p=0.022), groups. For the two-hand strike the PESL group improved more than the C (1.29, p<0.000), and the TL group (0.81, p=0.004). 

Place Table 2 Here 

Physical Fitness Variables 
Physical fitness outcomes for the evaluable participants stratified by intervention group are presented in Table 3.  For the trunk lift the TL group improved compared to the C (3.45, p=0.047), and the PESL group (4.07, p=0.002). The TL group improved in the sit and reach compared with both intervention groups (C 6.34, p<0.001; PESL 4.77, p<0.001). The TL group also improved in the sit-ups compared with the two intervention groups, but the improvement was not significant (P>0.05). The PESL group significantly improved in the pull-ups compared to the C (0.74, p=0.023), and the TL group (0.82, p=0.001).  The C group showed significant improvements in the push-ups and the 1 mile run compared to the TL group (p<0.05), but not the PESL for the 1 mile run (p>0.05).

Place Table 3 Here 

Process Evaluation
At the school level 100% of the session of the Gameday program were offered. At the child level >80% of prescribed sessions were attended. 

Discussion
From a practical and efficacy point of view the study was a complete success. This group-randomized study established that an 8-week school-based intervention, delivered for 100 minutes per week, significantly increased elements of physical fitness and improved fundamental movement skills, though not body composition, in elementary school children. Furthermore, teachers from the TL group reported that the Gameday program was easily learned and administered, the fact the company provided all the daily lesson plans was a huge bonus to the teachers. The teachers also commented that the children enjoyed the program.

The current study reports no significant improvements in body composition within groups or between intervention groups after the 8-week intervention. Several studies have examined the effects of a school based physical activity program on changes in cardiovascular risk factors, and have report similar modest or no changes. In the �Know your body� program, a year long intervention in fourth graders aimed at the prevention of chronic disease, showed no significant effect on blood pressure (Walter et al. 1985). No overall significant changes in BMI, body fat or blood pressure between the control and the intervention groups were observed in the 2.5-year CATCH study (Walter et al. 1985). In the STEP TWO (German) program, an intervention targeted at 8 year olds as part of an obesity prevention program showed no significant differences in bioelectrical impedance, waist to hip ratio, systolic and diastolic blood pressure between the control and the intervention groups (Graf et al. 2005).

While there is mounting evidence that physical education- based straggles are effective for increasing physical activity (Fairclough et al. 2006), there is a paucity of data on motor skills and fitness. In the current study the within-group effects for movement skills significantly improved after the 8-week intervention, and students from the TL and PESL groups improved more than those in the C group. In terms of improving motor skills, the results of the present study are similar to the �Move it Grove it�, elementary school program in Australia. The intervention delivered substantial improvements in fundamental movement skills (Walter et al. 1985).

For physical fitness variables there were some significant within-subject changes, with the TL group showing the most improvement in trunk lift, sit-up and sit and reach, and significant between group effects for trunk lift and sit and reach.  There are several plausible explanations for why greater differences between the intervention groups and the control were not found. The dose (100 minutes per week) and the duration (8 weeks) of the Gameday intervention were minimal.  In 2002, the Food and Nutrition Board of the National Institute of Medicine (IOM) recommended 60 minutes of moderate intensity every day of the week for health (Institute of Medicine, Food and Nutrition Board 2002). Data concerning the effect of school-based interventions on cardiovascular risk factors and physical fitness are inconsistent. A recently published Cochrane review concluded that there was limited high quality data on the effectiveness of programs designed to prevent obesity (Campbell et al., 2001).  


Strengths and Limitations
The main strength of this pilot study is the relatively large number of randomly sampled children, who are representative of the general Moorpark population for these ages. Further, very few large studies have included objective measures of movement skills and physical fitness. Our emphasis on using only objective outcome measures provided a rigorous test of the intervention. Previous studies dependent on more subjective outcome measures have reported benefits to intervention, but this probably represented bias in subject/ parent self report in many cases. A potential limitation of the study was data on the kinds of activities the participants from the interventions groups and the control group engaged in outside of school hours was not collected. This may have accounted for the increases in motor skill and fitness level in the control group.

We were aware, from recent systematic reviews (Campbell et al. 2001; Reilly et al. 2003; Reilly et al. In press) of very few ongoing RCT in pediatric obesity prevention, and most of these focus on adolescents from minority groups. Previous RCT, were limited in number and have generally not reported benefits to the intervention. The present study is therefore an important addition to the evidence base.

In conclusion, interventions aimed at school children have the potential to positively influence health behaviors, which may track from childhood into adolescence and adulthood (Kelly et al. 2007, Lyttle et al 1995). Interventions which focus on behavioral change school education represent one potential, population based, approach to the prevention of obesity. The Gameday program appears to make a significant impact on children�s motor skills and physical fitness, with limited burden to the school staff and their resources. In conclusion, the Gameday program should therefore be evaluated on a larger scale over a much longer period. The paucity of data on relationships between activity and health in children means that further intervention studies are required (Fulton et al 2001). The present study suggests that Gameday merits further evaluation in this regard. 

Acknowledgements
We are particularly grateful to the children, families and the following schools: Peach Hill, Walnut Canyon and Arroyo West for their enthusiastic participation and help in recruitment for the study.

Ethics:  The Institutional Review Board of the California Lutheran University approved this study, and all procedures were performed in accordance with standards outlined in the Helsinki Declaration.

Financial Disclosers: None reported.

Data Sharing: There is no additional data available

References
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Legend for Figures

Figure 1 Game Day CONSORT diagram 

Figure 1 Game Day CONSORT diagram 



















Table 1. Anthropometric and Body Composition across group effects for Evaluable Participants (n=217)

�Control (C)(N = 47)Teacher Led (TL)(N = 76) Physical Education Specialist (PESL)(N = 94)Outcomes aPre-TestPost-TestChange ScorePre-TestPost-TestChange ScorePre-TestPost-TestChange Score
P ValueAge( yrs)8.04 (2.12)8.04 (2.12)0.00 (0.00)8.05 (1.98)8.05 (1.98)0.00 (0.00)7.77 (2.18)7.77 (2.18)0.00 (0.00)Height (m)1.31 (0.13)1.33 (0.14)-0.01 (0.04)1.21 (0.35)1.28 (0.30)-0.06 (0.44)1.28 (0.20)1.18 (0.39)0.10 (0.42)0.496#Weight (kg)32.15 (11.85)33.83 (11.92)-1.69 (7.07)33.70 (15.89)34.11 (14.88)0.05 (15.27)31.06 (12.05)31.35 (11.73)-0.57 (1.98)0.341BMI (kg/m2)18.12 (3.51)18.87 (5.08)-0.75 (4.34)18.76(4.96)18.78 (4.64)0.02 (6.01)18.13 (3.88)17.73 (3.52)-0.02 (1.49)0.540BMI Percentile (%)63.78 (29.55)62.84 (30.61)-0.75 (4.34)63.79 (28.55)66.31 (27.44)0.02 (6.01)65.07 (30.00)59.53 (32.25)-0.02 (1.49)0.570Waist Circumference (cm)59.87 (9.58)61.98 (10.37)-2.01 (4.09)60.04 (11.70)62.52 (11.64)-2.55 (15.38)61.15 (10.76)61.28 (11.13)0.01 (6.21)0.068�Hip Circumference (cm)70.90 (9.82)71.36 (9.16)-0.27 (2.43)71.36 (12.21)74.55 (11.47)-3.44 (13.40)71.33 (10.46)72.47 (11.70)-0.98 (4.44)0.006*Waist/hip ratio0.84 (0.06)0.87 (0.06)-0.02 (0.07)0.84 (0.07)0.084 (0.06)0.00 (0.10)0.86 (0.09)0.85 (0.06)0.01 (0.07)0.668
Note; Data are mean (SD) unless otherwise stated. � Indicates a trend for significance, * indicates a significance difference, #indicates intervention groups are significantly different from one another using Bonferroni multiple comparisons (P<0.05).





Table 2. Fundamental Movement Skills across group effects for Evaluable Participants (n=217)

�Control (C)(N = 47)Teacher Led (TL)(N = 76) Physical Education Specialist (PESL)(N = 94)Outcomes aPre-TestPost-TestChange ScorePre-TestPost-TestChange ScorePre-TestPost-TestChange Score
P ValueCatch4.23 (1.67)5.56 (0.99) *-1.29 (1.60)4.47 (1.84) 5.45 (0.98) *-0.94 (1.85)4.22 (1.46)4.99 (1.43)-0.64 (1.76) *0.837Kick5.34 (2.01)6.14 (1.18) *-0.93 (2.35)4.59 (2.07)6.56 (0.92) *-1.96 (2.21)4.50 (1.79)5.79 (1.16)-1.16 (1.74) *0.008#Run2.87 (1.14)4.42 (0.78) *-1.58 (1.09)3.41 (1.54)4.62 (0.81) *-1.11 (1.51)3.09 (1.29)4.36 (0.77)-1.28 (1.30) *0.738Vertical Jump2.62 (1.28)4.28 (0.83) *-1.62 (1.46)2.93 (1.31)4.37 (0.78) *-1.40 (1.53)3.06 (1.49)4.00 (0.94)-0.91 (1.92) *0.121Overhand Throw3.62 (1.61)5.18 (1.19) *-1.54 (1.53)3.21 (1.98)4.91 (1.29) *-1.63 (2.09)3.38 (1.74)4.95 (1.41)-1.38 (2.09) *0.951Ball bounce1.98 (1.24)4.17 (0.84) *-2.19 (1.44)2.24 (1.68)4.09 (0.97) *-1.70 (1.83)2.91 (1.17)3.86 (1.04)-0.92 (1.46) *0.007#Leap 2.13 (1.37)4.09 (0.91) *-2.07 (1.49)2.42 (1.69)4.13 (0.81) *-1.66 (1.71)2.68 (1.09)3.59 (0.99)-0.89 (1.47) *0.004#Dodge3.68 (1.22)4.19 (1.11) *-0.51 (1.47)2.63 (1.33)3.49(1.28) *-0.76 (1.33)2.33 (1.19)3.14 (0.93)-0.76 (1.50) *0.406Punt5.70 (2.05)6.02 (1.80) *-0.26 (2.00)4.57 (2.59)7.01 (1.48) *-2.33 (2.61)3.61 (1.91)5.56 (2.07)-2.0 (2.13)0.000#Forehand Strike4.34 (2.08)5.95 (1.38) *-1.55 (2.07)3.47 (2.18)5.05 (1.77) *-1.78 (2.03)3.35 (1.79)4.48 (1.65)-1.15 (2.26) *0.110Two-hand strike6.06 (2.23)6.85 (1.50) *-0.79 (1.99)4.95 (2.54)6.84 (1.63) *-1.77 (2.12)4.66 (2.31)5.62 (1.85)-0.79 (2.40) *0.039#
Note; Data are mean (SD) unless otherwise stated. � Indicates a trend for significance, * indicates a significance difference, #indicates intervention groups are significantly different from one another using Bonferroni multiple comparisons (P<0.05).





Table 3. Markers of Physical Fitness across group effects for Evaluable Participants (n=217)

�Control (C)(N = 47)Teacher Led (TL)(N = 76) Physical Education Specialist (PESL)(N = 94)Outcomes aPre-TestPost-TestChange ScorePre-TestPost-TestChange ScorePre-TestPost-TestChange Score
P ValueTrunk lift31.40 (7.65)32.94 (6.30)�1.38 (3.97)14.06 (4.74)27.85 (9.39)*-14.48 (9.06)21.03 (10.53)30.89 (6.41)*-0.98 (11.88)0.000#Pull-up1.68 (4.07)1.81 (2.44)-0.13 (2.900.61 (1.07)0.80 (1.67)-0.18 (1.32)1.39 (1.93)1.69 (2.57)-0.29 (1.68)0.185Push up14.98 (9.34)13.68 (11.49)1.29 (9.05)9.71 (6.65)9.75 (8.09)-0.58 (8.81)7.88 (7.71)9.22 (8.32)-1.22 (7.18)0.899Sit-up14.89 (13.94)16.72 (21.07)*-07.89 (17.32)14.71 (19.53)24.14 (39.74)*-11.91 (39.09)21.86 (52.70)20.98 (37.09)2.25 (45.01)0.106Sit and reach22.99 (7.59)22.73 (7.01)0.413 (5.11)36.64 (9.76)26.68 (5.28)*10.45 (9.71)26.32 (6.32)25.99 (6.98)-0.43 (6.83)0.000#1 mile run6.35 (4.03)6.31 (3.55)*0.64 (1.63)7.43 (4.77)8.06 (5.41)0.24 (1.57)6.79 (3.75)6.25 (3.56)�-0.32 (1.50)0.502
Note; Data are mean (SD) unless otherwise stated. � Indicates a trend for significance, * indicates a significance difference, #indicates intervention groups are significantly different from one another using Bonferroni multiple comparisons (P<0.05).











PAGE  


PAGE  1


PAGE  


PAGE  1



Assessed for eligibility,
310 invited to participate

Refused consent/not interested/did not qualify n = 86


Completed Program:

n= 75


Dropped out 
 n= 2

Completed Program:

n= 94


Dropped out 
 n= 4

Completed Program:

n= 48

Dropped out 
 n= 1

Control

n = 49

PE Specialist

n = 98


Teacher Led

n = 77

Random allocation

224 consented and present for baseline measures



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