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!n�������)�8"@F�K0L9��R�*��RD�9�98�R�":<''�+'''''8K8K�+'''L''''���������������������������������������������������������������������R'''''''''��!:	Running head: Self-talk and pre-competition anxiety




"I can do it" versus "We can do it": 
Effects of different references of self-talk on pre-competition anxiety




Veronica Son
Division of Kinesiology and Sport Science, University of South Dakota, Vermillion, USA
Evelyn Oregon
Department of Kinesiology, Recreation & Sport, Western Kentucky University, Bowling Green, USA
Deborah L. Feltz
Department of Kinesiology, Michigan State University, East Lansing, USA



Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Veronica Son
Division of Kinesiology and Sport Science, University of South Dakota, Vermillion, SD, 57069, USA. Email:  HYPERLINK "mailto:veronica.son@usd.edu" veronica.son@usd.edu; Tel: +1 605 677 5937; Fax: +1 605 677 5338. 

Abstract
The purpose of this study was to examine how modifying the referent of self-talk statements with respect to level of agency (i.e., individual versus group) may influence team members� self-confidence and performance anxiety within a team-based novel dart-throwing task. In addition, this investigation sought to explore the way in which one�s relative performance within the team (i.e., superior performer versus inferior performer) may influence the effect of self-talk on performance anxiety.  Collegiate undergraduate participants (N = 93) were randomly assigned to three-person teams and then were allocated to one of three self-talk conditions, specifically (a) self-talk statements that focused upon one�s personal capabilities, (b) self-talk statements emphasizing the group�s capabilities, or (c) irrelevant self-talk. Based on their practice performance, students were ranked as a superior or inferior performer within a team. Only the top ranked and bottom ranked members of the triad were used in analysis. Results showed that inferior team members reported lower somatic anxiety when group-oriented self-talk was used, compared to when individual-oriented self-talk was used. For best performers within a team, however, somatic anxiety was higher when they used group-oriented self-talk than when individual-oriented self-talk was implemented. Regarding self-confidence, no significant effect of self-talk was found. These findings are considered with respect to their novel theoretical contribution to the anxiety literature in a group setting and their practical implications for decreasing pre-competition anxiety.

Key words: Group performance, Pre-competition anxiety, Self-confidence, Self-talk

"I can do it" versus "We can do it": 
Effects of different references of self-talk on pre-competition anxiety
From an applied perspective, self-talk has been central in cognitive behavioral modification (Meichenhaum, 1977). Based on the assumption that what people say to themselves either covertly or overtly, influences the way they behave, strategies involving mental processes have been developed to regulate cognitions and to change existing thought patterns. A substantial body of studies has consistently provided empirical evidence for the effectiveness of self-talk in enhancing performance from various tasks and settings (e.g., experimental tasks and intervention studies), and self-talk is frequently included as an integral part of psychological skills training (e.g., Hardy, Hall, & Hardy, 2005; Hatzigeorgiadis, Theodorakis, & Zourbanos, 2004; Theodorakis, Weinberg, Natsis, Douma, &Kazakas, 2000; Van Raalte, Brewer, Rivera, & Petipas, 1994). 
Recently, research has progressively moved toward the identification of the functions underlying how self-talk strategies enhance performance (see Hardy, 2006). Self-talk researchers have suggested that self-talk can serve (a) to control individuals� attention (Hardy, 2006; Landin, 1994; Nideffer, 1993), (b) to regulate effort and motivation (Hardy, 2006; Hardy, Gammage, & Hall, 2001; Hardy, Jones, & Gould, 1996), and (c) to enhance self-confidence and self-efficacy beliefs (Hatzigeorgiadis, Zourbanos, Mpoumpaki, & Theodorakis, 2009; Hatzigeorgiadis, Zourbanos, Goltsios, & Theodorakis, 2008;; Son, Jackson, Grove, & Feltz, 2011). For example, Hatzigeorgiadis, Theodorakis, and Zourbanos (2004) examined the function of self-talk in a water-polo precision task. They found that individuals who used motivational self-talk improved their concentration, effort, and task performance. More recently, Hatzigeorgiadis and his colleagues (Hatzigeorgiadis, et al., 2009; Hatzigeorgiadis, Zourbanos, & Theodorakis, 2007) emphasized the importance of self-talk in controlling performance anxiety. Hatzigeorgiadiset al. (2007) investigated the effect of different functions (motivational versus instructional) of self-talk on self-confidence and anxiety symptoms after implementing a 3-day self-talk training program in a swimming task. The results revealed that participants in the motivational self-talk group reported less anxiety than those in the instructional self-talk group. Consistent with findings from the previous study (Hatzigeorgiadis et al., 2007), Hatzigeorigiadis et al., 2009 found that performance and self-confidence improved for the experimental group, whereas no changes were found in the control group.  Results also revealed that cognitive anxiety was significantly lower for the experimental group, compared to the control group.  
Despite a couple of recent experimental investigations indicating that motivational self-talk may be responsible for reducing performance anxiety in athletic settings (Hatzigeorigiadis et al., 2008; 2009), it should be noted that the role of self-talk has received minimal experimental scrutiny in a group setting in previous research. Given that many sports, whether competitive or recreational, are not performed individually, it is somewhat surprising that the literature exploring the mechanism of self-talk on a group task remains limited. Indeed, anecdotal accounts regarding the effectiveness of self-talk in team sports have been evident in the sport psychology literature (Ronglan, 2007). From interviews with athletes playing team sports, Ronglan reported that positive self-talk strategies (i.e., positive verbal persuasion) helped enhance confidence in the capability of one�s team (i.e., collective efficacy), as well as in their own ability, and he further noted that athletes perceived that self-talk can be one of the most effective strategies to improve their team performance and collective efficacy beliefs. 
More recently, Son, Jackson, Grove, and Feltz (2011) examined whether motivational self-talk could help improve performance and confidence using a team dart-throwing competition. In that experimental study, participants were allocated to small groups and given a copy of self-talk scripts that were framed using either the individual�s capabilities (e.g., �I can perform well�) or the group�s capabilities (e.g., �we can perform well�). Interestingly, the results showed that in comparison to both a control group and �I�-referent self-talk group, individuals using �we�-referent motivational self-talk statements reported greater performance improvement and confidence 1 in both their own capability and their team�s capability. Son and her colleagues (2011) suggested that the effectiveness of group-oriented self-talk in enhancing performance and confidence in one�s own and team�s capability can be attributed to reducing performance anxiety. They further postulated that positive statements emphasizing the group�s capabilities can create a strong sense of unity (i.e., cohesion). Thus, by contributing to a sense of unity among team members, group-referent self-talk can provide an indirect buffer against any performance anxiety. Therefore, the current investigation sought to build on these recent experimental studies by considering the role of different referents of motivational self-talk statements in relation to performance anxiety in a team competition setting. 
In addition to the specific referent of the self-talk statement (i.e., �I� versus �we�), a group member�s skill level within a team (i.e., inferior versus superior performers) may influence performance anxiety differently as a result of the self-talk. Research in group dynamics has shown that group members� skill level within a team can be an important factor to influence one�s motivation and efforts in a group task (Kerr, Messe, Seok, Sambolec, Lount, & Park, 2007; Osborn, Irwin, Skogsberg, & Feltz, 2012).  Kerr et al. (2007) proposed that when working as a team, inferior group members should exhibit greater increases in motivation and effort in group tasks as they become more responsible for the group�s outcome (i.e., as the task becomes conjunctive). This effect has been labeled the K�hler motivation gain effect, named after Otto K�hler, a German industrial psychologist who first observed it in German rowing team members. Kerr et al. (2007) argued that one reason for this effect is one�s indispensability to the group. That is, when the team performance is strongly determined by one�s own individual contribution, the inferior member may be motivated toward more effort because of concerns about holding the team back, possible team sanctions, or feelings that the team�s success and/or his/her reputation in the team relies on his/her personal performance (Weber & Hertel, 2007). Even with an additive team task (where the team score is the sum of the team members performance), however, inferior members may still feel these effort-enhancing concerns. Osborn et al. (2012) found that inferior group members had significantly greater performance improvement than non-inferior teammates when they performed in swimming relay races compared to when they performed in individual races. This sense of indispensability also may be associated with performance anxiety and a motivation to greater effort to perform well to avoid anxiety, especially when one perceives the possibility of embarrassment and/or social sanctions. Thus, it is possible that group members� performance anxiety may vary depending on the rank of a person within a team (i.e., inferior versus superior performer). And further, self-talk that is focused on the individual rather than the team may accentuate the sense of personal responsibility for the team outcome.
Drawing from the limited body of research, motivational self-talk statements have been shown to be effective in reducing not only performance anxiety (e.g., Hatzigeorgiadis at al., 2009), but also enhancing confidence in an individual task (e.g., Hatzigeorgiadis et al., 2008) and in a group task (Son et al., 2011). As an extension to these existing findings, the primary purpose of this investigation was to use controlled, experimental methods to evaluate the differential effects of individually-focused and group-focused motivational self-talk statements upon performance anxiety and self-confidence in a team-based motor task. The second aim of this study was to explore the way in which one�s relative performance within the team (i.e., superior performer versus inferior performer) may influence the effect of self-talk on pre-competition anxiety. On the basis of congruence between self-talk content (i.e., individual- versus group-focused), we hypothesized that performance anxiety would be lower for those in the group-focused self-talk condition than those in the individual-focused self-talk condition, whereas self-confidence would be greater in the group-focused self-talk condition compared to the individual condition. Regarding skill level effects, due to lack of literature in relation to performance anxiety, no specific hypothesis was proposed.
Methods
Participants
	A total of 93 collegiate undergraduate students, comprising 21 males and 71 females, were recruited for this study on a volunteer basis. Participants ranged in age from 18 to 33 years (M = 20.55, SD = 2.59), and, on average, reported 6.27 hours (SD = 5.44) of sport participation per week.
Task, Measures, and Manipulations
	Experimental task. Participants completed a novel dart-throwing task that consisted of a set of 10 �practice� throws followed by a set of 10 �performance� throws. All throws were made with the non-preferred hand, using standard steel-tip darts at a paper target measuring 370 mm in diameter which was placed flat on the floor with the center of the target 2m away. Pilot testing indicated that this distance, using the non-preferred hand, created a moderately difficult task that reduced the chances of ceiling or floor effects in performance scores. The target itself consisted of 10 concentric circles of increasing radii (i.e., 16.5 mm, 33 mm, 49.5 mm, 66 mm, ��., 138.5mm, and, 165 mm). Point values of 10, 9, 8, 7, �., 2, and 1 were clearly visible within the circles (innermost circle = 10; outermost circle = 1), and a point value of 0 was displayed outside of the largest circle. These scores were summed for the 10 �practice� throws and again for the 10 �performance� throws.
	Pre-competition anxiety and Self-confidence. The cognitive (5 items) and somatic anxiety (7 items) subscales of the revised CSAI-2 (CSAI-2R; Cox, Martens, & Russell, 2003) were used to assess pre-competition anxiety. Respondents rated their feelings before competition (e.g., �I feel jittery� and �I am concerned about losing�) on a scale anchored by 1 = not at all and 4 = very much so. Subscale scores were calculated by summing items in each subscale, dividing by the number of items, and multiplying by 10. The score range was 1 � 4 for each subscale. 
The self-confidence subscale (5 items) of the CSAI-2Rwas used to measure the level of self-confidence. Participants were asked to report their self-confidence on a 4-point scale anchored by 1 (not at all) and 4 (very much so). 
	Self-talk intervention. Based on input from five researchers who had experience in both self-talk and self-efficacy theory, five individually-referenced motivational self-talk statements, five group-referenced motivational self-talk statements, and five neutral (i.e., control) statements were generated. The individually-referenced and group-referenced self-talk statements were identical in content except for the referent of the statement (e.g., �I am [We are] a confident performer[s]�, �I [We] believe in my [our] ability�, �I am [We are] focused and ready�, �My [Our] skill will improve with every throw�, and �I [We] will perform well�). The neutral statements, on the other hand, made no reference to one�s level of skill, ability, or performance on the upcoming task (e.g., �I live in Michigan, �I am a student at MSU�, �I am a male/female�, �I am __(age)_years old�, and �I have _(Colors)__eyes�). 
Self-talk manipulation check. The manipulation check for the participants� overt self-talk consisted of the following question: Did you use the statements that you recorded and listened to as self-talk? If yes, were the statements helpful to decrease your level of pre-competition anxiety? Responses were made on a 10-point scale anchoring from 1 (not at all) to 10 (very helpful).  
Procedure
	Upon review and approval of the Institutional Review Board for Human Subjects, prospective participants were informed about �a study on self-talk and motor performance� during undergraduate classes. Those who volunteered then read and signed informed consent forms prior to being randomly assigned to either an individually-focused, group-focused, or neutral self-talk condition. An equal number of teams, comprising three members, were then randomly created within each experimental condition and scheduled for testing. All members of a given team reported to the laboratory at the same time. Upon arrival for testing, respondents were introduced to the other members of their team, were asked to provide demographic information about themselves, and were given a brief introduction to the dart-throwing task. The group nature of the task was made salient by emphasizing that individual performances would be summed to generate a team score and at the end of this study, the team with the best score would win a cash prize of $100. Each member of the team then made 10 practice throws in the presence of the lead investigator while the other members of the team waited in another room.
	After completing their practice throws, participants were provided with a written copy of their randomly assigned self-talk script, which they were asked to record in digital form on a desktop computer in an �enthusiastic and believable� manner. When they were satisfied with the quality of the recorded self-talk script, participants were instructed to go back to the waiting room. Once all members had recorded their self-talk script, all teammates were brought to the laboratory and were instructed to listen to their own recording individually for a period of 2 min. 
	All individuals were then made aware of their own and their team�s score from the practice round. Participants were then asked to complete the CSAI-2R to assess pre-competition anxiety and self-confidence. After providing the CSAI-2R, each team member completed a final set of 10 performance throws in the presence of their teammates. Headphones were worn while making these throws, and the pre-recorded self-talk script was played continuously while the throws were being made. All participants were instructed to ensure throughout that their actual self-talk statements (a) mirrored those that were being played through their headphones, and (b) were performed covertly. Upon completing their throws, the lead investigator asked participants to confirm that the actual content of their self-talk had matched the audio recording provided to them (see Hamilton et al., 2007). All participants reported that the self-talk they had employed did indeed correspond to their audio-recorded script. When all members of the team had finished throwing, the participants were debriefed, given an opportunity to ask questions, and thanked for their involvement.
Results
Manipulation Check
Responses to the question, �Did you use the statements that you recorded and listened to as self-talk?� revealed that 93.5% of motivational self-talk participants (N = 56) reported that the given self-talk statements were used for their actual self-talk.  They also reported that the assigned self-talk statements were helpful to decrease their pre-competition anxiety (M = 6.56, SD = 2.26). 
Descriptive Statistics and Correlations
	Descriptive statistics are presented in Table 1 for the sample as a whole as well as separately for the three self-talk conditions. In terms of gender effects, one-way between-subjects analyses of variance (ANOVAs) revealed no significant differences between males and females for somatic anxiety (Mmale= 1.28, SD = .29 and M female = 1.30, SD = .42), F(1, 91) = .74, p = .78; cognitive anxiety (Mmale= 1.86, SD = .42 and M female = 1.74, SD = .53), F(1, 91) = .83, p = .37; or self-confidence (Mmale= 2.56, SD = .38 and M female = 2.34, SD = .45), F(1, 91) = 2.19, p = .10. One-way ANOVAs also showed that there were no significant differences between the three self-talk conditions in mean hours of current sport involvement, F(2, 87) = 2.67, p = .08, types of sport involvement (i.e., team sports versus individual sports), F(2, 87) = .08, p = .93, or importantly, in scores on the practice trial, F(2, 87) = .59, p = .56. That is, there were no baseline differences in the practice performance levels among those assigned to the group-focused (M = 39.24, SD = 9.14), individually-focused (M = 40.67, SD = 13.15), and control (M = 37.58, SD = 10.79) self-talk conditions. 
	Pearson correlations were subsequently computed between the primary variables in the investigation, revealing a significant correlation between somatic anxiety and performance scores (r = -.25, p < .001, d = .92), as well as between self-confidence and performance scores (r = .35, p < .001, d = .96). That is, individuals who displayed great performance in experimental trials were less somatically anxious and more self-confident. 
Primary Analyses
	Pre-competition Anxiety. For this analysis, the middle ranked participant was eliminated to create a superior/inferior skill condition. A 3 (self-talk) x 2 (skill levels) factorial ANOVA was used to test the effect of self-talk type and skill level on the somatic anxiety dimension. The assumptions of normality and homogeneity of variance were met.  Results revealed a significant interaction effect between self-talk and skill level, F(2, 56) = 3.07, p< .05, �p2= .10, power = .57.  That is, superior team members reported lower pre-competition anxiety when individual-oriented self-talk was used, compared to when group-oriented self-talk was used.  For inferior performers within a team, however, pre-competition anxiety was lower when they used group-oriented self-talk than when individual-oriented self-talk was implemented (see Figure 1).  No significant main effects emerged for either self-talk conditions (p = .71, �p2= .01) or skill levels (p = .15, �p2= .04). 
Regarding cognitive anxiety, a 3 (self-talk) x 2 (skill level) factorial ANOVA was performed to test for the effects of self-talk and skill levels.  There was no significant interaction between self-talk conditions and skill levels, F(2, 56) = 1.89, p= .16, �p2= .06, power =.38.  Results also revealed no main effects for self-talk conditions (p = .16, �p2= .06) or skill levels (p = .08, �p2= .05). 
	Self-confidence. A 3 (self-talk) x2 (skill levels) factorial ANOVA was also used to test for differences in self-confidence scores as a function of self-talk condition and skill level(assumptions of ANOVA were again supported, F(2, 56) = 1.06, p = .40, �p2= .037.  No significant interaction effect or main effect for the self-talk condition was found; however, a main effect for skill level was observed, F(1, 56) = 6.70, p = .01, �p2= .11, power = .72. That is, superior team members reported significantly higher self-confidence compared to inferior team members.
Performance.  A 3 (self-talk) x 2 (skill levels) factorial repeated measures ANOVA was also used to test for differences in dart-throwing performance scores as a function of self-talk condition and skill level.  No significant main effect for self-talk conditions (p > .35)and no interaction effect between self-talk and skill level was found (p >.09; for inferior performers, (a) pre-performance: Mgroup-oriented ST= 32.91, SD = 8.31, Mindividual-oriented ST = 28.00, SD = 12.35, Mcontrol = 28.91, SD = 7.56, (b) post-performance: Mgroup-oriented ST  = 46.91,  SD = 14.07, Mindividual-oriented ST = 51.44, SD = 7.57, Mcontrol = 40.82, SD = 12.16; for best performers, (a) pre-performance: Mgroup-oriented ST  = 46.09,  SD = 7.08, Mindividual-oriented ST = 51.78, SD = 6.52, Mcontrol = 46.86, SD = 7.86, (b) post-performance: Mgroup-oriented ST  = 48.36,  SD = 10.07, Mindividual-oriented ST = 47.33, SD = 6.52, Mcontrol = 46.82, SD = 15.20). However, there was a significant difference in performance change between superior and inferior members, F(1, 56) = 24.70, p< .001, �p2= .31, power = .99.  Inferior team members improved their scores from the practice round (M = 30.06, SD = 9.35) to the actual round (M = 46.06, SD = 14.72); whereas, there was no difference in superior team members  scores from the practice round (M = 47.71, SD = 7.46) to the actual round (M = 47.52, SD = 12.92). 
Discussion
The purpose of this investigation was to examine the impact of distinct forms of self-talk (i.e., group-oriented, individually-oriented, and control) on performance anxiety, self-confidence, and dart-throwing performance using a randomised, controlled group experimental design. The second aim of this study was to test whether the effect of self-talk on performance anxiety, self-confidence, and performance may differ depending on the skill level of team members (inferior versus superior performers within a team). Contrary to our expectations, a differential influence of individually-focused and group-focused self-talk on performance anxiety and self-confidence was not found. Rather, a significant interaction effect between self-talk and the skill level on somatic anxiety was found. Inferior team members who used motivational group-oriented statements reported less somatic anxiety compared to inferior team members who used individual-oriented statements. However, best performers in a team reported higher somatic anxiety when motivational group-focused statements were used in comparison to when motivational individual-focused statements were implemented.
Explanations for this finding are necessarily post hoc, but it is possible that for the inferior performer in a team, the team-based self-talk lessened the pressure on themselves � the weak link � who could be responsible for a poor team outcome and who could face the possibility of embarrassment and/or social sanctions. For example, in a team performance context, such as the one used in this study (i.e., additive and low interdependent task), it is entirely possible that positive statements emphasising the group�s capabilities may have helped to engender an atmosphere of cohesion and unity among inferior team members. By contrast, self-talk that focused on the inferior individual�s capabilities may have reinforced the inferior member�s performance, thereby creating greater anxiety.
For the best performers within a team, in light of the substantive evidence for positive self-talk effects on performance anxiety (Hatzigeorgiadis et al., 2008; 2009), it is unsurprising that performance anxiety was lower in the individual-oriented self-talk condition than in the group-oriented self-talk condition, though not significantly lower than the control condition. Superior performers may have felt that they had to �carry� the team, especially in an additive team task, and self-oriented self-talk may have helped to boost their confidence in being able to be that best performer. A group focused self-talk may have made the entire group�s abilities more salient to the superior team member, which may have created more pressure and feelings of uncontrollability about other team members� performances. These feelings may have created more anxiety.
Contrary to our expectation (Hatzigeorgiadis et al., 2009; 2007), no changes in cognitive anxiety were found for either main effect for self-talk effects or interaction effects. The effectiveness of self-talk strategies in reducing cognitive performance anxiety in sporting domains has been supported by Hatzigeorgiadis et al. (2009; 2007). In a previous study in a novel experimental motor task with students, Hatzigeorgiadis et al. (2007) found that the use of self-talk predicted reductions of cognitive anxiety and also that the content of self-talk moderated the self-talk effects. The authors suggested that the anxiety-related cue words resulted in the greater reduction of cognitive anxiety than instructional cues. Considering the content of self-talk used in this study, it is possible that motivational self-talk statements may be less effective in reducing cognitive anxiety. In addition to the content of self-talk, most of the previous studies examining self-talk effects on anxiety used a longer period of intervention (5 sessions; Hatzigeorgiadis et al., 2007) compared to one session in this study. It is also worthwhile to test the effectiveness of motivational self-talk statements in cognitive anxiety with longer periods of intervention in future investigations. 
	With respect to the main effects of self-talk conditions on self-confidence and performance improvement, given the consistent support for the positive relationship between self-confidence and performance (e.g., Hatzigeorgiadis et al., 2009; Moritz et al., 2000; Zinsser, Bunker, & Williams, 2001), it is unsurprising that the best performers reported the highest level of self-confidence, whereas the inferior team members perceived less self-confidence.
	Although there was no interaction between skill level and self-talk type on performance, there was a main effect for skill level in which only the inferior team members improved their performance from practice round to performance round. This finding supports previous research on the K�hler motivation gain effect that inferior group members exhibit greater increases in effort-based performance in group tasks where they feel indispensable to the team effort (e.g., Feltz, Kerr, & Irwin , 2011; Kerr et al., 2007; Osborn et al., 2012).
	In light of the relative ease with which self-talk techniques may be implemented, the findings of the present study hold important implications for those working in (and leading) small groups. In particular, these findings suggest that when an instructor, coach, or consultant is working with an inexperienced or newly-formed team (as these teams were), for the weakest member in a team, encouraging facilitative self-talk statements whose referent is �we� may reduce somatic anxiety; whereas, for the best performer, encouraging motivational self-talk focusing on an individual�s capability may decrease somatic anxiety. Implementing different referents of self-talk technique depending on skill levels of team members may be beneficial during both training sessions and prior to a competition.  In addition, this study provides support for the utility of self-recorded methods of self-talk (Hamilton, Scott, & MacDougall, 2007; Son et al., 2011), and as such, this type of assisted intervention may represent a relatively simple aid to team members when developing and implementing their own self-talk routines. For individuals with little or no experience of self-talk training, this type of facilitated method may be particularly helpful.
	Although the present study makes a theoretical and practical contribution to our knowledge of self-talk, anxiety, and confidence beliefs, there are limitations that need to be considered. First, it is worth noting that somatic anxiety and self-confidence were only measured following practice performance and implementation of self-talk strategies. Although this design enabled interesting between-groups comparisons, it would also have been worthwhile to examine somatic anxiety and self-confidence from pre- to post-intervention (i.e., repeated measures) within each self-talk group. 
	As a second limitation, it is worth noting that the teams used in this study were formed artificially for the purpose of the experiment, and as a result team members were largely unfamiliar with one another prior to task completion and were not highly interdependent. Although co-acting teams may regularly be formed in such a manner (e.g., in teaching physical activity contexts), the extent to which the current findings generalise to more experienced and interdependent teams is limited. Bearing this in mind, it would be particularly interesting in the future to explore ways in which different task and team characteristics (e.g., group size, team experience, level of interdependence) may moderate the influence of different self-talk modalities and skill levels upon performance anxiety. In the future, it may be worthwhile to determine whether self-talk statements targeting individual rather than group capabilities are more pertinent in situations where individual performance attainments are stressed within a team (e.g., in disjunctive or conjunctive task conditions).
Although audio-recorded forms of self-talk such as those used in this study (i.e., �assisted self-talk�) have previously been shown to exert beneficial effects on performance (e.g., Hamilton et al., 2007; Son et al., 2011), the self-talk training program was relatively short compared to previous self-talk studies (e.g., three days; Hatzigeorgiadis et al., 2009). Nonetheless, from the manipulation check the �assisted� approach enables greater control over participants� thoughts, and moreover by recording (and subsequently listening to) the self-talk statements in their own voice, it was intended that this would ensure the phrases were personally meaningful to those taking part.
Finally, regarding the self-talk intervention protocol, it is possible that listening to their own recording while performing a dart-throwing task may distract participants� concentration and performance. Although the previous study using the similar protocol (i.e., assisted form of self-talk; Hamilton et al., 2007) reported that it did not diminish participants� performance, considering the nature of performance (cardiovascular endurance task versus accuracy task), this would need to be addressed as a possible limitation in this study. For the control group, irrelevant phrases to the given task may be also addressed to be possible distracter.  
In summary, an extensive body of research has documented the positive effects associated with performance enhancement at both individual and group levels. However, at present, relatively little experimental manipulation has been undertaken in order to understand the mechanism of self-talk in relation to performance anxiety and self-confidence, in particular, in a team setting. This study contributes to the literature on self-talk and performance anxiety when individuals work as a small group, by documenting the ways in which self-talk strategy referencing �we� or �I� may differentially impact one�s perceptions of performance anxiety depending on each member�s skill level. Further research that builds on these findings is clearly required; however, the results of this study suggest that for inferior performers within a team, self-talk statements that target a group�s conjoint capabilities may serve to reduce performance anxiety; whereas, implementing self-talk statements that emphasize one�s own capability may help superior players in a team decrease performance anxiety.
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���؛B�����`�����~ K!�!�"�"�"�"��������������������0�^��`�0�gdb����0�d��d�d[$\$^��`�0�gd�T	���0�d�^��`�0�gd�fP���0�d�^��`�0�gds��d�^��gdsd�gds���0�d�^��`�0�gd|i=�A�J�K�T�������Ν՝R�S�U�V�^�_�`�h�i�p�������������$�%�������տ���������Շ�����wi[i[�[h�u1hC-mHnHsH	uh�u1h�>�mHnHsH	uh�u1h�T	mHnHsH	tHuh�h�mHnHo(sH	tHuh�u1h�T	nHtHh�u1h�]nHo(tHh�HnHo(tHh�h�nHo(tHh�u1hHth�S�mHnHo(sH	tHuh�u1h�?mHnHsH	uh�u1hF�mHnHsH	uh�HmHnHo(sH	tHu%�\�]����������������� o p s t ~ � � � � � <!=!@!A!K!R!S!\!c!�!�!�!�!�!""]"`"b"h"�"�������Ƹ�����������������|�|�|�|�|n�n�n�nh�u1hdi�mHnHsH	uh�u1hHx�mHnHsH	uh�u1hF�mHnHsH	uh�S�mHnHo(sH	tHuUh�h�mHnHo(sH	tHuh�u1h�?mHnHsH	uh�u1h�>�mHnHsH	uh�HPJ\�nHo(tHh�u1h�]PJ\�nHo(tHh�u1hC-PJ\�nH	tH	* The effects of motivational and instructional self-talk on improving motor performance. The Sport Psychologist; 14: 253-271.
Van Raalte JL, Brewer BW, Rivera PM, Petipas AJ (1994) The relationship between observable self-tlk and cometitive junior tennis players' performances. Journal of Sport & Exercise Psychology; 16: 400-415.
Weber B, Hertel G (2007) Motication gains of inferior group members: A meta-analytic review. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology; 93: 973-993.
Zinsser N, Bunker L, Williams JM (2001) Cognitive techniqeus for building confidence and ehnacing performance. In Williams JM, editor, Applied sport psychology: Personal growth to peak perforamnce (4th Ed) Mountain View, CA: Mayfield; p. 284-311.



Footnote
1 In the Son et al. study, self-efficacy and collective efficacy were used and measured with scales designed by the authors.  However, we view efficacy and confidence beliefs to measure the same construct as argued by Feltz, Short, and Sullivan (2008). 






















Figure
Figure 1. Mean somatic anxiety ratings within the three self-talk conditions and two skill levels






















Table
Table 1. Descriptive statistics for the full sample and for the three self-talk conditions





 ADDIN EN.REFLIST 








Running head: Self-talk and pRE-COMPETITION anxiety	 PAGE   \* MERGEFORMAT 1


Running head: Self-talk and PRE-COMPETITION ANXIETY	 PAGE 20

Running head: Self-talk and efficacy	 PAGE 24



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