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�9�ZZ"|||WV�$��7�7�7�7�7�7�7$�:�S=�7��.WW..�7��||�c9�6�6�6.��|�|�7�6.�7�6�6�6|����Зu��������1��6|7y90�9�6m>l3�m>�6m>��6������6?$t�(_����7�7�4�����9....��������������������������������������������������������������������m>���������� �:	Tourism Organizations role in training and employment of University tourism graduates in Kenya

Poptani Sumayia., Sitati Noah Wasilwa., and Cheloti, Isabela
Moi University, Department of Tourism and Tour Operations Management, P.O Box 1125, Eldoret

Contact Name: Sitati Noah 
Contact Email: n_wasilwa@yahoo.com

Abstract
Tourism industry is one of the fastest growing industries in the world.  Kenya is one of the leading tourist destinations in Africa due to its rich and diverse culture, wildlife and scenic beauty. As a result, there is an increasing demand for qualified professionals to serve in this very sensitive and yet fragile industry. Moi University, the pioneer institution of higher learning to offer a degree programme in tourism management has so far produced many graduates who work in different sectors. This study aimed at investigating whether tourism industry practitioners were aware about tourism graduates and whether they were willing to offer industrial attachment and employment opportunities. Also assessed was whether development of Moi University Tourism Students Electronic database (MUTSEd) would be an important tool for future recruitment of Moi University tourism graduates. A questionnaire was used to collect data on third and fourth year students studying Bachelor of Travel and Tour Operations Management at Moi University and tourism organizations (travel agencies, tour operators and airlines) in Mombasa. Descriptive analysis, Analysis of Variance and Chi square tests were used to compare between variables using Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS). The findings were that about half of the organizations are aware about the tourism degree programme, but have preference for diploma and certificate holders. More male than female were employed in tourism organizations with tour operators leading in employment compared to travel agencies. Students and tourism organizations recognize the need to have e-data base for tourism graduates on the web of the employees in tourism sector. It is recommended that the university should develop MUTSEd program to market its students. 

Key words: Moi University, industrial attachment, MUTSEd, tourism students, tourism industry

Introduction 
Kenya, with its rich wildlife, scenic beauty, long colonial history, and diverse ethnic culture, possesses distinctive tourism resources characterized by attraction variety, abundance, antiquity, and uniqueness. These rich endowments have not been fully realized due to the country�s political uncertainties, international wars, travel advisories, world economic recession, training concerns of tourism professionals, and more recently, piracy of ships, all of which have made the country, not able to fully exploit the tourism potential. 

Tourism trainings in Kenya, has mainly focused on certificate and diploma, is gradually developing to be massive in scale with university expansions and calling for training reforms being undertaken by the Catering Tourism Development Levy Trust (CTDLT), a policy, promulgated to harmonize training in tourism to ensure efficient and effective delivery of services in tourism industry.  

Tourism has since been widely adopted as an important economic pillar in the realization of the vision 2030 (GoK, 2007). In particular, with the promise of foreign currency yields and employment generation, tourism was cosseted by the Kenyan government as a means to help overcome the hardships experienced in rural areas. Its growth in the last few years has been extraordinary. However, this growth has been met with mixed success. The participation of the university tourism graduates themselves has been less rapid. Failure of the tourism organisations to respond effectively to the changing shifts in employment and to transform proactively the tourism graduates labor force to adapt to tourism jobs has frustrated university graduates seeking for employment. 
This paper discuss tourism training at university level in Kenya and the role of tourism operators in providing employment and training opportunities to graduate student trainees. It examined whether tourism organizations demand for human capital during the transition from certificate-diploma training to degree-oriented training, has been positively taken by practitioners. In particular, it explored the adequacy of recognition of tourism organisations to such training needs by the universities. It would be argued that the tourism training programs that have been put in place have not prepared potential employees well for participation in tourism training and employment. The industry has been narrowly conceived as consisting primarily of graduates from Utalii College and other middle level colleges that dominate the tourism market. The goal is to meet the international standards in tourism through addressing the changing circumstances. Not only is this at odds with current tourism market conditions in many destinations in Kenya, this industry has overlooked requirements of university graduates and failed to stimulate degree holders participation.

Theoretical Context of Human Capacity Development
Capacity development can be conceptualized as a process of economic conditioning. This is particularly true in the developing countries where tourism is widely used by governments to elevate the internal functioning of economic and social systems. At the same time, the strong in�uence that the elites impose upon the modes of production is often ignored. At the same time it is common for the historical context and political processes that determine capacity development to be overlooked (Britton 1982).
 
Theoretically, it is a widely accepted view that using highly qualified personnel is indispensable if tourism enterprises are to be viably sustained in the current market. Employment generation is usually considered to be the most direct and bene�cial impact of tourism to the population. Thus, a fundamental issue is the ways in which government agencies address training and hence employment, an issue which should be addressed through appropriate policies. In light of this, a prerequisite for understanding impacts within the context of developing economies is the study of the implications of policies on the nature of the host population�s participation in tourism and the way in which it responds to resulting employment opportunities in this industry. However, studies on human resource in most cases re�ect a perspective on tourism as a major industry that contributes to economic growth. Hence, the main studies have been on human resources requirements such as staffing needs and employment generation (Elkin & Roberts 1994) through understanding of the dynamics of labor markets (Riley, Ladkin & Szivas 2002; Szivas, Riley & Airey 2003). However, the position of human resource concerns within the process of tourism policy formulation and implementation has not been subjected to widespread academic analysis. The dynamic nature of the tourism labor market, including high labor mobility between tourism organizations, wide rage of remuneration levels, and issues of seasonality further complicate the matter leading to planning difficulties (Riley, Lodkin & Szivas 2002). 

In spite of this, lack of good human resources development strategies in tourism sector is a common de�ciency in policies and plans. The underlying concept in the policies is predominantly associated with the mushrooming of middle level colleges which may compromise on meeting market demands, services, marketing and promotion, and so forth. Human resources development is scarcely mentioned or is glossed over in the majority of plans (WTO 1994).
 
Developing destinations� pressing demand for sound human resource strategies has been a shared international concern (Ankomah 1991, Brotherton, Woolfenden & Himmetog�lu 1994, Lipscomb 1998, Esichaikul & Baum 1998, Liu & Wall 2003). A chronic shortage of trained local individuals has often led to an unfavorable situation for both the industry and local people: managerial and other senior positions are �lled by expatriates and the unskilled and correspondingly lower paying jobs are left to the locals. Furthermore, the employment needs of the formal sector and large �rms are usually stressed to the neglect of the training needs of small entrepreneurs or for other employment available in petty trading activities. 

The accumulation of human capital is a poorly developed area of discussion in the literature. In plans and even the academic literature, section(s) entitled   human resources development  , or   tourism training  , typically involve only a �imsy description of this issue. This topic is frequently passed off as a residual matter and, where addressed, normative approaches to meeting international requirements are often espoused. However, the fundamental issue is whether or not the host population is in a position of strength to intervene in the development process or to negotiate meaningful involvement. Thus, human resources planning has profound consequences for corporate business interests (Conlin & Baum 1994). 

Studies on this important research theme should be more than the collection and analysis of data about the interactions between employees� and recognition of education level. In addition to the conventional industry-oriented approach used by many studies, the inclusion of graduate student awareness and capacity in the conceptualization of employment and human resources development is vital. A broader approach to this subject should include capacity considerations that take into account desires and capabilities as well as the quantity and quality of labor required by various operations. In other words, positing policies and plans as potential primary determinants of employment brings to the forefront issues concerning the accumulation of human capital as an integral component of planning. It also leads to questions relating to the strategies and education programs used to develop the workforce. 

Using examples from tourism organisations in Kenya and Moi University, Department of Tourism Management, the study illustrates the need to give human capital development a more prominent position within the process of tourism policy formulation and implementation. The evidence on which the interpretations are based is derived from careful analyses of primary and secondary data, as well as both academic and practical experiences gained in Kenya, and more so in the Masai Mara National Reserve tourism stakeholders. A wide experience on tourism and involvement in a number of training planning initiatives in Kenya and, particularly, participation in actual training of university students in the pioneer tourism training institution of higher learning, undertaken by the authors over the past decade, inform this study. These activities have included surveys and interviews with the employers in a diversity of tourism establishments, in both the formal and informal sectors, and with students enrolled in a degree training programs. Attention has been paid especially to the role of tourism organisations in influencing training and employment in the tourism sector. 

Human Resource Development in Tourism at Moi University 
Since 1991, Moi University, similar to many other training institutions has looked to tourism industry as important to stimulate economic growth, and have swiftly adopted measures to keep pace with growing market demands. These have included total separation of tourism aspect from Wildlife Management Department to strengthen tourism training through developing its own training curriculum. Before then, tourism was under the department of Wildlife Management. Being the only university by then to offer this course in East and Central Africa, the strong support from the university has facilitated the mobilization of resources to underpin a rapid demand in training in tourism to meet the market demand. In the light of the changing tourism market, the Tourism Department was split into three self autonomous programmes, namely, Tourism Management, Travel and Tour Operations Management and Hotel and Hospitality Management in 2003. In 2005, due to low student enrolment of less than 30 in the Department Travel and Tour Operations Management, it was subsequently merged with the Department of Tourism Management as a programme but still offering its degree in Bachelor of Travel and Tour Operations Management. From 2003 onward, enrolment in tourism courses has grown substantially by almost four fold as it has received strong endorsement from the central government by allocating substantial funds for its development and by employing the graduates (Figure 1).

Industrial attachment course is one of the practical experiences that students are exposed to during the second year (Industrial Attachment 1) and third year (Industrial Attachment II). A two month attachment, in May and July, out of semester, must be undertaken before a student can finally be awarded a degree after four years of study. Tourism being a service industry, students get attached in any sector that deals with service provision including tourism organizations, banks, marketing institutions, hospitality sector among others. With increasing number of students, and many institutions going for the limited chances from both university and middle level colleges, coordination of industrial at the university level is becoming quiet a challenge with most small tourism enterprises not willing to take on students from universities. This paper tries to document this based on a survey that was undertaken in Mombasa, one of the leading tourism destinations in the Kenya and on the third and fourth year Travel and Tour Operations Management, Moi University students on Industrial Attachments opportunities.


Figure 1. Tourism student enrolment at Moi University between 2003 and 2009 (Source: Moi University, Admissions Office 2010)

Tourist Arrivals in the World and in Kenya
International tourist arrivals in 2007 grew by 6% to reach nearly 900 million from 534 million in 1995 (UNWTO 2008, Figure 2). The growth was well above the long-term forecast of 4.1%. Africa is emerging as a strong tourist destination with 8% increase to 44 million tourists. Africa has averaged its annual growth rate at 7% since 2000. The increase in tourism numbers must be consumerate with the enrolment of students in tourism training institutions to meet the market demand.

International tourist arrivals in Kenya were 1.8 million in 2006, 1,480,732 in 2007 and dropped to 710,804 in 2008 due to post election violence (KTB 2008, Figure 3). By June 2009, 413,657 tourists had been recorded in Kenya. Tourist annual arrivals have consistently sustained impressive growth, varying between annual rates of 2.7 and 22.1%, between 2000 and 2006 with the exception of 2008 when a decrease of about 1.7% occurred as a result of the post election violence (KTB 2008). Tourism earnings dropped from Ksh 60 billion (US$ 0.8 billion) in 2007 to Ksh 52.6 billion (US$ 0.71 billion) in 2008. In 2006, domestic tourists reached 3.8 million, which was an increase of 22 times when compared with only 0.71 million in 2000 (KTB 2007). Visitors from England, USA and German have always been the majority (about 66% in 2006) of the ��international�� arrivals. In the same year, international receipts accounted for US$ 1 billion, which was the highest ever recorded in Kenya, as compared to a 1980 income of US$ 0.34 billion. 


Figure 2. Inbound tourist international arrivals between 1995 and 2007 (Source: UNWTO 2008).


Figure 3. A steady increase in tourist arrivals in Kenya between 2000 and 2007 followed by a decline due to political violence (Source: KTB 2008).

The domestic market has also become prosperous, as the Kenya economy grew substantially (7.2%) after the National Alliance of Rainbow Coalition party took over power in 2002 from 0.5% in 2001 (KTB 2008). Tourism has been an expression of the increasing capitalization (or commercialization) of the Kenyan economy. By 2007, receipts generated by both international and domestic tourism comprised approximately 8% of Kenya�s GDP. Correspondingly, the number of jobs in tourism-related industries soared by 33 times between 2000 and 2006. An estimate by Kenya Tourism Board (KTB 2008) indicated that people employed in tourism increased from only 170,000 in 2000 to over 300,000 by the end of 2006, with secondary employment effects of over 150,000 jobs generated in other supporting industries. 

Training Needs Response to Tourism Growth
As the tourism industry quickly expanded, the ability to respond to this new economic sector requirements was noticed. Training and education for personnel at a university level were nonexistent prior to 1991. It then germinated with the establishment of Department of Tourism, at Moi University. Pressing needs for an adequate workforce to cater to ever-increasing visitation were not properly met: ��investment has been made in infrastructure, e.g. hotels, tourist attractions, and road and air transport, while education and training for tourism has been neglected��. Surprisingly, no writers have been critical of capacity to satisfy the requirements of tourists, despite very low standard of services in Kenya. This problem has arisen from workers� lack of knowledge and means to understand and respond to the needs of their consumers. 

As a means of alleviating this problem, the government through the Catering Tourism Development Levy Trustee (CTDLT) has instituted a standard curriculum for training programs to help middle level training institutions in order to improve on the service personnel. This was followed by a series of education and training initiatives maneuvered jointly by the Ministry of Tourism and tourism stakeholders through the design of curricula and guidelines, quality control and monitoring, teaching material editorials, and resources allocation. At the same time, some costly short term training opportunities abroad were also provided: for example, being trained in Switzerland, Thailand, China, among other countries (CTDLT 2008). 

Initially, training programs at the middle level both at certificate and diploma outpaced those of university. By 2008, there were over 25 tourism institutes/colleges and 8 universities offering courses related to tourism, producing a total of 1,850 graduates (1,220 at college level and over 635 at university level) (GoK 2009). Tourism studies at Moi University have since expanded. At the end of 2008, with total enrollments of 1441 (1362 enrolled at undergraduate level, 48 at graduate level and 31 at a doctoral level) (Dean, School of Business per comm.). Being the only university offering doctoral programs in tourism, other universities have started training programmes at a masters level in Tourism management namely Kenyatta University and Maseno University. A pyramidal-structured training system at Moi university in 2008 (undergraduate 94.5%, graduate studies 3.3%, doctorate 2%) mirrors the industry�s demands for personnel. Those pursuing masters and doctorate eventually end up being lecturers to meet the training demand. Recent trends include a continued growth in tertiary programs between 2000 and 2006. Progress, however, is limited by lack of teaching staff familiar with tourism, lack of teaching facilities and materials and information sources, and lack of adequate hardware for technical practices. Geographic distribution of tourism institutes is concentrated in large urban areas and cities, such as Nairobi, Mombasa, Nakuru, Kisumu and Eldoret. Licensing systems for tour guides, tour operators, and managers were also put in place to regulate the Kenya�s tourism personnel. 

Availability of training opportunities has also been broadened through collaboration with foreign institutes and personnel exchange programs with foreign universities. Intellectual exchanges are forged through frequent visits of foreign experts commissioned both by local and foreign resources. In house training for senior staff from the Ministry at district, provincial, national levels is also in place to improve professional qualities. Hence, in recent years, many training endeavors in tourism have been planned to foster the creation of a services culture and to upgrade the services skills that were missing in the past. However, a commonality found in this country and in most developing countries is an internationalization process that predominately caters to a foreign clientele�s tastes and requirements. The traditional use of middle level labor, in its present form, has not enabled most enterprises to derive substantial bene�ts from tourism business. This does not encourage the �ourishing of locally-owned small enterprises. 

Study Area
This study was undertaken in two areas (a) Mombasa and (b) Moi University.

Mombasa
The Kenya coastal areas supports close to one million people with an overall density of 100-200 persons/km2. Of these, about 400,000 live in Mombasa which is Kenya�s major seaport and second largest urban area. Mombasa has a good road network being an important industrial and commercial centre. Rail transport between the coast and the up-country regions is very important in the carriage of both passengers and freight. Moi International Airport in Mombasa is the main airport that handles both domestic and international flights.

Mombasa is a popular beach tourist destination mainly for sun, sand, swimming and sea. It is rich in historical and archaeological sites, and local culture. Hotels with good accommodation facilities are located directly adjacent to the beaches including Diani, Tiwi, and Shelly beach on the South coast, and Nyali, Bamburi, Shanzu, and Kikambala in the North coast of Mombasa. Other tourism attractions include diving facilities and the big-game fishing sports in the Indian Ocean. All around there are superb beaches and beautiful coral reefs. Far to the south of Wasini Island and, north, between Watamu and Malindi are the most spectacular marine parks.

Moi University
Moi University is the third public university to be established in Kenya in 1984. The university located in Rift Valley province, is the pioneer in tourism training in Kenya. Tourism training programmes are embedded in the School of Business and Economics, the second biggest school in the university after the School of Education. The school has also started tourism training programmes with eleven middle level colleges offering diploma courses including Centre for Training at Wildlife Clubs of Kenya, Tsavo Park, Amboseli Institute, Tech Institute, Global Ville, East African School of Aviation, Sacred Africa, CITC, Elgon view, Kapsabet College, and Nairobi Airways. The school also has training programmes in various campuses offering both degree and diploma programmes including: Narok College; Kitale Campus, Mt Kenya Campus, and Kabianga College.

Methodology of the Study
Two types of populations were studied namely tourism organizations in Mombasa and third and fourth years students of Travel and Tour Operations Management programme from Moi University. A questionnaire survey was undertaken on the tourism organizations located in Mombasa. First, an inventory of all the tourism organizations was undertaken for purposes of determining the sampling design and procedure. 37 tourist organizations were counted out of which only 22 (59.5%) organizations were selected using computer generated random sampling technique which comprised tour operators (n=11), travel agencies (n=10) and airlines (n=1) Questionnaires were then distributed to the managers of the sampled organisations for filling in.

A questionnaire survey was administered to 60 third and fourth year TTM student�s taking the degree course of Bachelor of Travel and Tour Operations Management (BTT). Since third year students were 30, and two were absent, all the 30 were willing to be interviewed. As a result, for comparative purpose, 30 fourth years students were randomly selected out of 37 for interview. To determine where tourism graduates are employed, a quick survey using students and staff whether they know the where about of the former tourism graduates generated 106 cases.

A Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) was used during data analysis. Descriptive frequencies and percentages were derived and chi square and analysis of variance tests performed to determine differences between variables.


Results
Employment gender disparity in tourism organizations
The number of tourism organizations interviewed (n=22) differed with the nature of business including 50% being tour operators, 45.5% were travel agencies and 4.5% airlines, respectively (�2 = 8.273, df = 2, p = 0.016). 45.5% of the tourism organizations sourced their employees internally through their staff, from employment agencies and advertising in the newspaper (22.7%) and from friends and internet (9.1%). The source of recruitment did not vary between the tourism organizations (�2 = 6.000, df = 3, p = 0.112).

Tourism organizations employed more male than female (ANOVA; F = 5.115, df = 1, p = 0.029) with the mean number of male and female employees being 19.24 � 6.41 and 4.52 � 1.11, respectively.

Tour operator firms had a high number of male employees (33.7 � 10.61) than female employees (6.00 � 2.01) and this varied significantly (ANOVA; F = 7.43, df = 2, p = 0.013). However, in travel agencies the mean number of male employees (3.30 � 0.62) and female employees (2.90 � 0.50) did not vary (ANOVA; F = 2.04, df = 2, p = 0.0169).

Education level of employees in tourism organizations
Most tourism organizations prefer employing certificate and diploma holders followed by form four drop outs without any formal training and degree holders being the least preferred. The number of employees with different levels of education; O-level (5.57 � 1.6), College/Diploma (16.76 � 5.54) and degree (1.38 � 0.52) differed significantly (ANOVA; F = 8.496, df = 1, p = 0.009) in tourism organizations.

The level of education of employees in tour operations and travel agencies differed significantly among the O-level, college and degree holders. The mean number of employees with O-level education in tour operations (9.36 � 2.55) and travel agencies (1.400 � 0.50) were significantly higher (ANOVA; F = 8.496, df = 1, p = 0.009).

The mean number of employees with college level of education in tour operations (27.91 � 9.53) and travel agencies (4.50 � 0.67) also varied significantly (ANOVA; F = 5.432, df = 1, p = 0.031). The same applied to the university level of education which differed between the tour operations and the travel agencies (ANOVA; F = 4.575, df = 1, p = 0.046). Mean numbers of employees with university level of education in tour operations (2.36 � 0.91) were significantly higher than employees with university level of education in travel agencies (0.30 � 0.15).

Perceptions of tourism graduates by tourism organizations 
Almost equal proportion (45.5%) of the tourism organizations were aware about the tourism degree programs being offered at Moi University and 54.5% had no idea about the degree program. There was no significant difference between the tourism organizations (Table 1).
 
Most (72.7%) of the tourism organizations considered tourism graduates to be an essential part of their business while 27.3% did not consider them important and the response differed significantly difference between the tourism organizations (Table 1). However, only 47.6% of the tourism organizations were willing to consider employing tourism graduates in future, while 38.1% and 14.3% are unwilling or remain undecided, respectively. However, the willingness to hire tourism graduates did not vary between the tourism organizations (Table 1). Foreign languages are an essential component of employment by 71.4% of the tourism organizations and this varied significantly (�2 = 3.857, df = 1, p = 0.051).

Table 1. Importance of tourism graduates in tourism organizations 
Description�2dfpTourism organizations aware of tourism degree program
Importance of tourism graduates in tourism organizations  
Future employment of tourism graduates in tourism business0.182
4.545
0.9091
1
30.670
0.033*
0.823*Significant at 0.05.

Tourism organizations views on Industrial Attachment and employment for tourism students
The importance of industrial attachment for tourism students varied significantly between tourism organizations (Table 2). Majority (95.5%) of interviewed tourism organizations considered industrial attachment as an important part of training for students. As a result, 68% of the tourism organizations offered industrial attachment opportunities for the tourism students while 32% did not offer any industrial attachment opportunities. There was no significant difference between the tourism organizations (Table 2). However, only 50% of the tourism organizations were willing to offer tourism students industrial attachments opportunities in future while 36% were not willing and 14% were non-committal and the response did not differ between the tourism organizations (Table 2). 

In terms of employment of graduate students, 58.8% of the tourism organizations consider offering jobs students previously attached in their organizations while 41.2% preferred not to offer jobs. There was no significant difference between the tourism organizations considering offering job opportunities to students who were attached in their organizations (Table 2).

Table 2. Industrial attachment and employment opportunities for tourism students 
Description�2dfpImportance of industrial attachment for tourism students
Industrial attachment opportunity for tourism students
Job offer to students who were attached with the tourism organizations
Future job opportunity for tourism students18.182
2.909
0.727

4.4551
1
1

10.000*
0.088
0.394

0.108* Significant at 0.05


Tourism students� industrial attachment placement
All the third year and fourth year students went for their industrial attachments in 2006 and 2007. For the third year students, 10% of the students were attached in airlines, 10% in travel agencies, 13.3% in tour operator businesses, 20% in NGO�s and Kenya Wildlife Services (KWS), 13.3% in Ministry of Tourism and Wildlife, and 33.3% in tourist hotels and lodges.

The fourth year students who had gone for two sets of industrial attachments during the second and third years of study went to different places. During the first attachment, 13% were attached to airlines, 33.3% were in travel agencies, 20% in tour operations and other placements such as banks and business institutions, while 6.7% were attached at the Ministry of Tourism and Wildlife (now Ministry of Tourism) and tourist hotels and lodges. 

Fourth year students second Industrial attachment was undertaken in different places. 3.3% were attached in airline companies, 13.3% in travel agencies, 30.3% in tour operations, 20% in other places like banks and business institutions, 16.7% in the Ministry of Tourism and Wildlife (now Ministry of Tourism) and 6.7% in tourist hotels and lodges.

There was an increase of 10% in attachment opportunities from the first attachment to the second attachment in tour operator firms and a decrease of 20% in travel agencies. Others areas such as Ministry of Tourism and Wildlife, tourist hotel and lodges and other places (banks and business institutions) remained the same. 

Development of Moi University Tourism Students Electronic Data-base (MUTSEd)
The views on MUTSEd as a tool for marketing and recruitment of tourism graduate students by the tourism organizations varied significantly between the tourism organizations (�2 = 12.091, df = 2, p = 0.02). 68.2% of the organizations felt that MUTSEd will be an efficient and cheaper means for recruitment, 13.6% did not find it effective and 18.2% had no idea. As a result, most (72.7%) of the tourism organizations were interested in receiving yearly updates of MUTSEd (�2 = 4.545, df = 1, p = 0.033). 

The response among the third and fourth year students, on the need to develop MUTSEd as tool for future marketing and recruitment of tourism graduates for employment opportunities by tourism organizations varied significantly (�2 = 21.600, df = 1, p = 0.000). Majority (80%) of the fourth year students supported the concept of MUTSEd while 20% did not and this response showed a significant variation between the fourth year students (�2 = 10.800, df = 1, p = 0.001). A similar response was noted among the third year students where a similar proportion (80%) were for the idea and hence this response also differed significantly between the third year students (�2 = 10.800, df = 1, p = 0.001).

Snapshot Analysis of Student Places of Employment of Former Tourism Students
Most (43.3%) tourism students preferred to be employed by airlines. Other areas preferred by students included tour operations (16.7%), Human resource (13.3%), hotels and lodges (10%) and only a small percentage (3.3%) preferring the Ministry of Tourism. However, 13.3% of the students preferred other sources of employment. 

A quick survey of the known former tourism graduates (n=107) end up being employed in different sectors (Figure 4). Twenty one employment opportunities were identified where the former tourism students are currently employed. Most students have either been enrolled for graduate studies and end up being employed by universities. Others have been employed by the Ministry of Tourism, hotels, Banking institutions, conservation bodies, NGOs, and other service sectors like insurance, travel agencies, airlines among others. Some have been employed as tutors / lecturers in middle level colleges.



Figure 4. Where do Moi University tourism graduate students end up being employed?


Discussion
Tourism industry is �ourishing in the world (Figure 2) and in Kenya (Figure 3) demanding for employment opportunities and better services. Equally, enrolment of students for training in tourism management at university level is also flourishing to meet the market demand (Figure 1). However, while training is sought to achieve operational professionalism, most of the higher-level skills and management expertise are rarely cultivated and accumulated locally (Tables 1 & 2). Thus, the anticipated bene�ts are minimal, especially from small scale enterprises because of their inability to motivate the graduate employees. At the same time, empirical information suggests that tourism is not a highly-rated form of employment, mainly because of unfamiliarity with the nature of these jobs and the lack of competitive pay for most positions (Figure 4) and graduate students have high preference for employment in lucrative organizations like airlines. This presents a limitation to using tourism as a social and economic development strategy and blocks creation of potential employment in smaller, locally-owned enterprises. 

Yet, beyond the impressive growth, many complained about local defects in meeting the expectations of tourists (KTB 2008). Domestic concerns and some resistance have also emerged related to the fears of subordinating Kenya authenticity to foreign demands and tastes. Other issues have also emerged as a result of a lack of skills and experience in dealing with tourism development, such as underestimation of the increasing changing market demand, dominance of lower cadre trained personnel in the industry, as well as failure to carry out necessary measures to improve the quality of services and to create a trained workforce. 

In spite of the impressive rates of tourism growth (UNWTO 2008; KTB 2008; Figures 2 and 3), such de�ciencies and Kenya s inability to capitalize fully on tourism development opportunities is due to the absence of an adequate response from the educational system. The needs of the industry for human capital development have been constrained by failure of tourism organisations to recognize university graduates a bureaucracy that has placed a primary emphasis on strengthening certificate and diploma holders and, in association with this, devaluing and suppressing university training. This has resulted in an unfavorable situation: a substantial amount of foreigners and low cadre local expertise to develop this industry.

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$dha$gd�x���1�D�u�v�����������ϭЭѭ٭�������4�l�x��������	��O�g���������5�O�W�d����,���������	������������!�=��������*�:�C�i�������R�f�h�z����������:�>�B�X�Z�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������hZl~h�x�5�h�x�h�x�h�%5Uhv�hS�hn`�h�x�hMh�x�Tars that tourism enterprises have not fully appreciated the employment effects of university graduates and the pivotal role that human capital plays in sustaining the viability of an enterprise growth and development. Observations from tourism enterprises provide evidence that the level of incorporation of university graduates into tourism organisations are largely determined by historical precedents. Moi University through MUTSEd should aggressively market their graduate students for possible employment in tourism sector.

The stakeholders who are involved in this industry are typically hampered by their lack of familiarity with service skills, marketing, and tourism cultures and seek for cheap labor with low education level. Graduate who can be self-employed or manage entrepreneurial groups have not been encouraged to become involved. This is because entrepreneurship still lacks the full support of the public sector. In fact, it is deterred to some extent by the governments at all levels. 

The relative isolation of university graduates, physically and spiritually by certificate and diploma dominated market in management positions, as well as the oppression and servitude that the degree holders have gone through, have all resulted in only a vague sense of what the provision of services entails. This diminished graduates� enthusiasm and commitments to their responsibilities. As observed, the perceived nature of management positions held by diploma holders and university graduates working under them contributed to low motivation and morale among university graduates. Some weak-willed graduates could not withstand such treatment and resign from their positions. 

Conclusion
The dilemma of skills and knowledge de�ciencies in tourism organisations and the frequent lack of adequate response by policymakers and planners are obstacles preventing the university graduates from bene�ting from employment. With due attention to human capital by the public, industrial, and educational sectors, an outcome of training efforts could be a mix of all types of personnel, thus satisfying the workforce demands of the multiple sectors involved in tourism. However, for this to occur it will be necessary to adopt an approach that goes beyond the dominant traditional orientation towards middle level colleges and growth philosophy of tourism plans. The government should ensure tourism organizations tap the best brains in order to provide the best services to boost tourism industry in Kenya.

This explorative study has revealed that there exist some clear patterns on how tourism organization view and consider graduate students in training and employment and how graduate student plan to confront with them. The study reveals that tourism graduates have a wide sphere of employment and not necessarily in tourism related sectors. This should be crucial information for both parents, students, tourism organizations and university institutions offering tourism degree programme. In the future, there are at least interesting research tasks. The most urgent is explorative investigations into the implicit theories of students and practitioners and the normative theories taught in university programs for possibility of reviewing the curriculum to meet the market demand. Currently, little is known about these differences, and this lack of insight is probably the most important obstacle if unlocked will see graduate tourism students securing job opportunities in tourism sector. There is a need to develop a database for marketing students like what happens with the UN agencies. Secondly, the design of this study does not allow making generalizations about tourism students� implicit theories about future employment opportunities. Finally, the university should constantly review its training curriculum jointly with tourism stakeholders to train the needed skills. 

Acknowledgement
We are grateful to the staff and students of Moi University, Tourism Department for the valuable information towards this study. We are also grateful to the tourism organizations who volunteered information for this study. The study could not have been completed without the support of the field assistants. 

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