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#�#0�#�R�'�N�'��'E�dddddddJ#J#ddd�#dddd���������������������������������������������������������������������'ddddddddd	:Emergency issues of clandestine production of drugs. The case of �sisa�- the homemade crystal meth in Greece. 
P. Nikolaou*, S. Athanaselis, I. Papoutsis, A. Dona, C. Spiliopoulou, M. Stefanidou
Department of Forensic Medicine and Toxicology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Athens
*Corresponding author at:
Department of Forensic Medicine and Toxicology, School of Medicine, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens
Mikras Asias 75, Goudi 115 27, Athens, Greece
Tel.: +302107462414; fax: +302107716098. E-mail address:  HYPERLINK "mailto:pan_nik@hotmail.com" pan_nik@hotmail.com

Abstract
Socioeconomic situation in a country can also affect the trends in drug use. Homemade methamphetamine appeared recently in Greece under the street name �sisa� and became very popular among drug addicts due to its low cost. It is manufactured mainly in small clandestine laboratories from inexpensive and easily available ingredients. The risk of an explosion in these laboratories is high due to the use of flammable solvents and it can frequently occur. A case of a man injured after an explosion in a clandestine laboratory and its toxicological investigation are described. During the investigation of such cases, toxicological analysis for determination of common or designer drugs of abuse, precursors and volatiles used in clandestine laboratories should be performed in biological fluids obtained from the injured people. 
Keywords: sisa, methamphetamine, clandestine laboratory, explosion, Greece

Introduction
Amphetamine-type stimulants represent a class of synthetic psychotropic compounds that are normally produced in clandestine laboratories worldwide. Methamphetamine is a stimulant psychoactive substance that is highly addictive and it can be ingested, inhaled, injected or snorted. It was first synthesized in 1919 and its use increased in 1960�s, but it became more popular in late 1980�s as smoked methamphetamine, which can rapidly achieve high concentrations in brain. Its illicit manufacture, trafficking and abuse still constitute one of the most serious illegal drug problems (1-4). Methamphetamine is easily produced in the majority of the clandestine laboratories using inexpensive and easily available ingredients (5). Chemicals that are used for the production of methamphetamine include acetone, methanol, toluene, red phosphorous, iodine crystals, caustic soda (sodium hydroxide), acids and ephedrine or pseudoephedrine under different �cooking� recipes that are available in Internet. The most commonly used process of clandestine manufacture of methamphetamine is the reduction of ephedrine or pseudoephedrine (active ingredient of many cold and flu medicines) by hydriodic acid (or other acid) and red phosphorous (5-7). Methamphetamine is known under the following street names �crystal meth�, �ice�, �speed�, �crazy medicine�, �crank� or �glass� (1, 5). The drug has hallucinogenic, empathogenic and entactogenic properties and its use causes euphoria, anxiety, depression, anorexia, weight loss, cachexia, dental decay, fatigue, violence, irritability, psychosis, paranoia, hyperthermia, seizure, increased heart rate and blood pressure, cardiac arrhythmia and death due to myocardial infarction or stroke (1, 8-10). 
The financial crisis worldwide has affected Greece more than other European countries the last years (11). The drug addicts under the current socioeconomic conditions resort to alternative or substitute drugs that are less expensive. During the last years, it seems that drug addicts abstain from opiates and prefer stimulant substances, due to the higher mortality of opiate users, higher risk for infections including HIV and adverse pharmacological effects. As cocaine remains an expensive drug, they are looking for other low cost substitutes.
A new street drug name, �sisa�, has been appeared in Greece the last years (12). �Sisa� is a homemade methamphetamine that is easily produced in cooking pots either in small clandestine laboratories or even outdoors near the consumption markets. Methamphetamine is considerably cheaper than both heroin and cocaine and it does not need to be grown or imported (13). It is characterized as the �drug of crisis� or �cocaine of the poor�, and according to drug users it is mostly smoked and sometimes injected. The trafficking of �sisa� is mainly observed in Athens centre. The drug is popular among adults with financial problems, since its cost is low (2-3�  per dose), and it is used especially by immigrants from Asian countries and young drug addicts. Furthermore, an extra risk for public health exists due to the expanded use of  sisa , as its use provokes intense sexual stimulation with concomitant decrease of restrain that can also lead to HIV infections. As a result, protective measures are not taken during sexual intercourse among these drug users (5, 14). So, the expanded use of �sisa� could contribute to the high increase of HIV infected people in Athens. 
�Sisa� is produced in clandestine laboratories, using a variety of ingredients similar to those that are used for the production of methamphetamine. The risk of explosion in these clandestine laboratories is significant and occurs frequently. Such an incident is described where a man got injured after an explosion during manufacturing �sisa�. The aim of this manuscript is to discuss the appearance of a �new� drug in Greece and its connection with the recently altered socioeconomic conditions of the country. The consequences on public health will also be discussed.

Case presentation
A 30-year-old man got injured by an explosion in a clandestine laboratory that was set up inside the kitchen of his house. The man tried to synthesize �sisa� using acetone, iodine crystals, caustic soda (sodium hydroxide) and medicines against cold and flu. During the manufacturing process a strong explosion occurred that caused 6.5% body surface area second degree burns to him. The victim was hospitalized for two weeks and toxicological analysis was performed in urine and blood samples obtained from him on his admission to the hospital.
Screening tests for all groups of drugs of abuse were performed by immunoassay (VIVA-E, Siemens, Germany) and his urine sample was positive for amphetamine type stimulants. The confirmation in urine and blood samples was carried out using a GC/MS method. The analytical method used for the confirmation of amphetamine type stimulants in biological fluids was the one that is used by our Laboratory in routine work and it is based on the method suggested by Gunn et al. 2010 (15). The sample preparation procedure included a liquid-liquid extraction by dichlomethane: isopropanol (9:1, v/v) at pH 9, followed by evaporation to dryness of the eluates under a gentle stream of N2 at room temperature (after acidification with ethanolic solution of HCl, 1%) and derivatization of the analytes using heptafluorobutyric anhydride (HFBA) at 70OC for 30 min. After evaporation, the residues were reconstituted in ethyl acetate and were injected onto the GC/MS system (Shimadzu GC-17a, QP-5000, Kyoto, Japan) that is equipped with a cross-linked HP-5MS capillary column (30m, 0.25 mm, 0.25 �m, Agilent Technologies, Illinois, IL, USA). The analysis for volatile substances was performed on a Head-Space GC-FID Agilent 6890N/G1888 (Illinois, IL, USA) equipped with a DB-ALC1 capillary column (30.0m, 0.53mm, 3.00�m, Agilent Technologies, Illinois, IL, USA).
During the GC/MS analysis, methamphetamine, amphetamine, ephedrine and pseudoephedrine were detected in urine, whereas methamphetamine and pseudoephedrine were found in blood at a concentration of 45.4 and 11.8 ng/mL, respectively. Paracetamol was also found in the urine and blood samples. The Head-Space analysis for volatile substances revealed the presence of acetone in his blood at a concentration of 110 mg/L.

Discussion
The economic crisis in Greece has as a result dramatic cuts in the expenses for prevention and treatment state strategies that have many consequences in public health. Many people lose the access to care and preventive services, like drug addicts that also wait for many years to join rehabilitation programs and have higher risks of HIV or sexually transmitted diseases (11, 16-18). Moreover, due to the per capita income decrease drug dealers are obliged to lower the price of their merchandise. As a result, the number of drug users and the frequency of use if not increase, remain stable (16). New methods allow the synthesis of all drugs like methamphetamine from cheap and reasonably easy to acquire chemicals and equipment. In parallel with the clandestine laboratories that manufacture illicit drugs, more and more drug users have set up small illegal laboratories to produce drugs like methamphetamine for their own use. This development was also facilitated by the free and easy access to legitimate and underground literature/information via Internet (3). 
Generally, in all of the above clandestine laboratories they use inflammable materials and reagents (like acetone, ethanol, red phosphorous etc.) for synthesis and purification of the produced drugs. Aside from the negative effects associated with actual use of the drug, the production of methamphetamine is a hazardous and volatile process that frequently results in complex burn and inhalational injury (13, 19). In these laboratories, safety measures are not normally taken, ventilation hoods are not used and untrained or inexperienced people usually work there. Therefore, in the absence of ventilation and under these conditions, explosions can easily happen as the air/solvent mixture remains in the room at ground level and a spark is usually enough. Fire and toxic fumes could provoke physical injury or chemical burns to people who work there or are found accidentally nearby at the time of explosion. Destruction of buildings and other property damages can also be caused. Moreover, toxic waste (gases or liquids) released from clandestine laboratories can pose hazards to the wider physical environment (3). 
During handling emergency cases of people that have been injured from an explosion that occurred in store houses, basements or apartments, under undefined circumstances and when solvents or other chemicals are found, the idea of a clandestine laboratory should be in mind. In such cases it is necessary to perform a thorough toxicological analysis, oriented towards common or designer drugs of abuse, of all the seized materials found in the scene and of the biological fluids of the people that were present at the time of the incident. Volatiles or precursors that are used during clandestine production of drugs should also be determined during the investigation of these cases.
In case of patients injured during the manufacture of methamphetamine, it is required specialized care. Possible threats for their health can be the increased risk of inhalational injury (20) or the onset of acute methamphetamine withdrawal syndrome (21). There is also the possibility of increased risk of sepsis and nosocomial infection because of decreased compliance with rehabilitation and wound care. Their presence in the burn unit may also represent a security risk for staff and other patients (13).
    
Conclusions
The socioeconomic conditions of a country can affect the community of drug addicts and lead them to synthesize designer drugs and substitutes that sometimes are more harmful than the common drugs.  Their production in clandestine laboratories poses risks to public health or safety, due to possible explosions. Determination of drugs of abuse, precursors, solvents and chemicals in biological fluids should be performed within the field of emergency medicine and during the investigation of cases concerning people injured in clandestine laboratories or exposed to chemicals that exist in these labs.

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Willers-Russo LJ. Three fatalities involving phosphine gas, produced as a result of methamphetamine manufacturing. J Forensic Sci 1999; 44: 647�52.
Santos AP, Wilson AK, Hornung CA, Polk HC, Rodriguez JL, Franklin GA. Methamphetamine laboratory explosions: a new and emerging burn injury. J Burn Care Rehabil 2005; 26: 228�32.
Schermer CR, Wisner DH. Methamphetamine use in trauma patients: a population-based study. J Am Coll Surg 1999; 189: 442�9.


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