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A Content Analysis of Gratitude


Sara M. Martino, Ph.D.*
Christine V. Ferri, Ph.D.
Marcello Spinella, Ph.D.
Richard Stockton College of New Jersey








* Sara Dettinger Martino completed her Ph.D. in Counseling Psychology at Temple University in 2005.  She is currently an Associate Professor in Psychology and Coordinator of the Women, Gender, and Sexuality Studies minor at Richard Stockton College.  Her research interests include several women�s issues, such as indirect aggression, risk factors of early menarche, clinical interventions for self-mutilating behaviors, and new positive psychology interventions for mental illness.  Her clinical experiences include work in community counseling as well as a state facility.  All correspondence should be addressed to: Sara M. Martino, Associate Professor of Psychology, The Richard Stockton College of New Jersey, 101 Vera King Farris Drive, Galloway, NJ  08205.  












Abstract

Gratitude is a positive psychology construct that is associated with well-being, positive affect, and executive function (Emmons & McCullough, 2003; Emmons & Tsang, 2002; Miley & Spinella, 2006), though little empirical research examines what people are grateful for.  The current study examines the content of gratitude journals kept during a two week gratitude intervention.  38 participants listed either 3 or 9 gratitudes everyday for two weeks.  12 discreet categories emerged using a grounded theory method of data analysis.  Gender differences were observed.  Women were more grateful for interpersonal relationships while men were more grateful for basic needs.  The content of gratitude, along with gender differences, may be important for the clinical application of gratitude.  Directions for future research are discussed.  


Keywords: gratitude, content analysis, gender differences, positive psychology















A Content Analysis of Gratitude
Positive psychology and its techniques have had increased visibility in psychotherapy over the past several years.  One such technique being utilized is gratitude.  Gratitude is a positive emotion about past events.  Despite its long presence in religious traditions and philosophical inquiry, empirical research on the topic is a more recent development.  Some research demonstrates the psychological benefit of applying gratitude as an intervention (Emmons & McCullough, 2003), though a number of assumptions about gratitude remain to be scientifically tested.  
As an emotion, gratitude often stems from the perception of a positive personal outcome of events, often due to external circumstances.  Thinking in terms of gratitude involves at least a two-step cognitive process: (a) recognition of positive outcome, and (b) recognizing the source of that outcome (Weiner, 1985).  Gratitude can be for something personal and emotional, such as loved ones or personal attributes, or can be for something more basic and/or convenient, like modern comforts and helpful gadgets.  
Research confirms the intuitive notions that gratitude is a positive emotional state that is associated with other positive emotions such as happiness, pride, hope, admiration, and trust (Walker & Pitts, 1998; Overwalle et al., 1995; McCullough, Emmons, and Tsang, 2002).  In contrast, it is rated as dissimilar from negative emotions such as contempt, hate, and jealousy (Schimmack & Reisenzen, 1997).  Gratitude has also been disassociated from indebtedness, which is more associated with negative emotion (Watkins et al., 2006). One study found gratitude to be related to some aspects of executive functioning in a college sample (Miley & Spinella, 2006).  
In addition to being correlated with positive outcomes, gratitude has been shown to cause a range of positive outcomes in intervention research evaluating a gratitude intervention, In a gratitude intertvention, participants who recorded gratitudes (compared to hassles or events) had higher positive affect, lower negative affect, fewer physical complaints, more exercise, better sleep and more prosocial behavior (Emmons & McCullough, 2003). 
Gratitude elicits positive emotion and therefore may be useful in clinical interventions.   Some research is studying the positive effects that gratitude can have as part of cognitive psychotherapy.  Bono and McCullough (2006) posit that using gratitude and forgiveness strategies within the therapeutic contexts can have a meaningful impact outside of therapy as a cognitive restructuring technique. 
Although there are demonstrated benefits to reporting gratitude, few studies in psychology have examined the content of gratitude interventions, regardless of methodology.  Prior research exploring gratitude content has suggested that themes of gratitude differ by gender. Gordon et al, (1994) examined children�s writing describing gratitude both before and after 9/11/01. Girls expressed more gratitude than boys for a variety of interpersonal relationships, such as friends, family members, teachers, pets, and other people.  Boys in the study reported more gratitude for material objects and their own lives (Gordon et al., 2004).  Older children reported more themes of gratitude than younger children.  In older adults, Krause (2006) found that women were more likely to report feeling grateful to God than men (Krause, 2006).  
Research indicates that gender-stereotypic behavior (woman as nurturer and man as problem-solver) can be both beneficial and a hindrance to male and female clients (Gehart & Lyle, 2001).  It is suggested that counselors take a gender-sensitive approach when working with clients. Using gratitude as a clinical intervention may have different effects.  Studies have shown that women are more receptive to receiving counseling than men (Sheu & Sedlacek, 2004).  In fact, it can be antithetical for men who identify with traditional male gender roles to engage in therapy and share emotional content (Carslon, 1987; Mintz & O�Neil, 1990).  Women also report better outcomes in therapy (Mintz & O�Neil, 1990).  Previous research (i.e. Gordon et al., 2004) indicates that women may express deeper gratitudes, such as interpersonal relationships, while men show more gratitude for basic needs.
Better exploration of gratitude content may help to address some of the potential concerns in implementing a gratitude intervention.  The current study attempts to further explore the growing literature in the area of gratitude (Emmons & McCullough, 2003; Emmons & Tsang, 2002; Miley & Spinella, 2006), by addressing the content of gratitude recordings, including gender differences in content.  
It is hypothesized that gratitude will emerge in distinct themes.  It is further hypothesized that women will be more likely to report gratitude for interpersonal relationships and people than men, and men will be more likely to report gratitude for achievements and financial status.  This work is largely exploratory and will help to guide future research on the content of gratitude in adults.



Method
Participants
	Participants for this analysis where selected from a sample of 202 participants in a gratitude intervention at a state liberal arts college in southern New Jersey.  Ages in the original sample ranged from 19-61 years old, with 91.8% of participants between 19-40 years old.  Academic level ranged from sophomores to seniors, with the majority of the participants in their senior year (65.6%). 
Participants took part in a gratitude intervention where they were asked to keep a daily written record for two weeks.  Control group participants were instructed to write down either 3 or 9 things daily that happened to them.  Each of the two experimental groups was assigned to list either 3 or 9 things daily they felt grateful for.  Participants were also asked to complete a pre-post emotional inventory and an executive functioning task as a post test only.  The current study is secondary data analysis of a subset of data from the original experimental study.  
Participants who were in the experimental groups (listed 3 or 9 gratitudes every day for two weeks) were selected for the qualitative analysis of the content of their journals. Because there were more women than men in the study, all men in the gratitude intervention were selected for the current analysis, with an equal number of women randomly selected to allow for equally sized groups.  The total sample of gratitude participants was 38, 19 females and 19 males.  
	Participants were recruited as a convenience sample, but effort was made to recruit participants from a range of academic majors and courses.  Participants received extra credit in their classes for participating. 
Materials
	Participants were supplied with a two-week journal during the study in which they wrote down their gratitudes or events that occurred during the day.  The instructions stated that they could list something that happened recently or something that they felt grateful for generally.  They were also instructed, �It can be something very important in your life or something very small, such as courtesy from a stranger or a nice sunset.�  These journal entries were analyzed for themes of gratitude.  
Procedure
	Four of the 14 dates were selected for analysis using a random number table. Using the grounded theory method, 11 categories of gratitude emerged until saturation point.  One additional category was added and was labeled �other/idiosyncratic� for themes that emerged and were not repeated.  The twelve categories were: relationships, animals, monetary, activities, work, place, material possessions, self/existential, nature, basic needs, life, and other/idiosyncratic.  Examples of relationships included, �my family�, �my husband�, and �my friends.�  Examples of nature included, �the beach�, �the weather�, �the rain�, and �the ocean.�  Examples of basic needs included �my bed�, �my car�, and �personal safety�.  
Once the categories were developed, two independent raters coded the data. Cohen�s kappa statistics were calculated to assess inter-rater reliability.  
Results
Overall, results indicate that there were 12 discreet categories of gratitude and that both genders reported more concentrated gratitudes in the 9 group condition (see Table 1).  Results indicate strong agreement on categories between raters (kappa=.830).  The data were split into two groups based on the experimental condition of the study; the �group 3� gratitude and the �group 9� gratitude, to determine if there was significant difference between the groups.  The specific categories of gratitude are described below.
People:  The participants who indicated gratefulness for people were simplistic in their descriptions.  Most participants indicated gratefulness for �my family�, while others stated, �my friends� and �my husband.�  
Animals: Categories of animals ranged from household pets such as �my dog� or �my cat� to more broad categories of �animals� or �the zoo�.  
Money: Participants indicated money by credit cards, ATM cards and machines, as well as paper money.  
Material Possessions: Most descriptors of material possessions were related to technology, such as �my iPod� or �my cell phone�, as well as some larger ticket items of �my computer� or �my flat screen�.  
Self: This category was used to indicate both a gratefulness for who the person was �I am grateful for who I am� as well as indications of personal strength like �I am grateful that I am a good student� or �I am grateful I am understanding�.
Activities: Participants indicated �playing basketball�, �I am grateful that class has ended early�, �I am grateful to be going out this evening�, and activities with others, like �I am grateful to go home and play with my daughter.�  
Nature: Participants indicated more diverse responses with regards to nature.  Examples included �the beach�, �the weather�, �the rain�, the �ocean�, and �perfect beach day.�  In addition, some participants included activities related to nature, such as �sitting in the backyard� and �watching the sunset.�  
Basic Needs: Participants responded with various types of basic needs, and there were not many similarities in responses.  Some comments included: �freedom�, �a ride home�, �sleep�, �personal safety�, �air�, and �shelter�.  
Work:  This category was indicative of all work-related items, including �I love my job� and �I am grateful for my boss.�  
Life:  Participants indicated mainly a gratitude for �life� or �living�.  
Place:  Participants responses that indicated a specific location, such as �Atlantic City� were coded using this category.  
Other: One final �other� category was created for items that both raters could not place in any of the 11 categories.  

Results showed that women were more likely to describe gratitude for people than men (women in 9 group=12.67, sd=5.13, men=7.25, sd=2.76).  Men expressed more gratitude for basic needs than women (men in 9 group=5.00, sd=2.00, women=3.00, sd=2.20).  Women expressed more gratitude for nature more than men (women=2.50, sd=2.64, men=1.25, sd=1.39).  Although t tests indicate that there are no statistically significant differences by gender, the pattern of findings that emerges in this small sample suggest that future research may have enough power to detect gender differences. 
	Simple correlations between gender (coded 1= female and 2= male) and number of gratitudes in each category were calculated for the 3 group. There were no significant differences occurred between the two genders.  There were very few gratitudes repeated for people in the 3 group.  
	In the group that listed 9 gratitudes, women described more gratitude for relationships/people than did men (r=-.594, p<.05).  In addition, two trends emerged.  Men described more gratitude for basic needs, such as freedom and shelter, than women (r=.457, p=.10). Women expressed gratitude for nature more than men (-.407, p=.14) (see Table 2).  

Discussion
	The overall findings for this study indicate that the content of gratitude tends to be repeated as more gratitude is reported, but also that demanding more gratitude reports may also involve deeper meaning.   The content of gratitude in this study could be coded into 12 discreet categories. Coding the content of gratitude with these categories was exhaustive and had good inter-rater reliability.  Determining the amount of gratitude one feels in each of these categories could be used in future studies about gender differences in the content of gratitude.   
 In the qualitative analysis of the 3 group versus the 9 group, gratitudes were more likely centered on family, friends, and more clinically relevant concepts in the 9 group.  This finding has implications for therapeutic work because the intervention may tend to be more meaningful for clients who are able to list several gratitudes or continue to list gratitudes over a longer period of time. Although previous gratitude interventions have focused on three gratitudes (i.e. Emmons & McCullough, 2003), looking at six or nine gratitudes at a time may elicit more meaningful responses that target other therapeutic goals. 	
Women are socialized to value connections, such as family, friends, and even nature, while men tend to be socialized towards achievement-oriented values (Crawford and Unger, 2004).  These findings may be used to inform therapeutic activities for women, as it appears from this study that women respond well to this type of intervention and were able to attach meaning to gratitude.  This may help to improve some of the outcomes that have been documented in positive psychology for women, especially if the number of gratitudes recorded is considered in the intervention.  These outcomes may include higher positive affect, lower negative affect, fewer physical complaints, more exercise, better sleep and more prosocial behavior (Emmons & McCullough, 2003). 
These findings may also have applications for men in therapeutic settings.  Since the pattern of men�s responses did not have any significant tendencies beyond basic needs in the content of gratitude, it may be that gratitude interventions for men need to take place over a longer period of time or may need to be explored in greater detail.  There is the possibility that men experienced more resistance to this intervention as well.  Men are less likely than women to seek help (Sheu & Sedlacek, 2004) and men exhibit more resistance to mental health counseling and therapeutic interventions (Crawford & Unger, 2004).  If clinicians want men to benefit from gratitude interventions in clinical settings, a long-term (longer than two week) or more intensive (list 10 gratitudes per day) intervention may be necessary for men to receive the same benefit.   
An important limitation of the current study is the small sample size.  The sample for this study originated from an experimental design, and qualitative analysis was limited to the experimental group.  In addition, it was difficult to recruit men to participate in the study, which further limited sample size. Another limitation is that this study utilized a non-clinical sample.  Future research may be more successful in finding relevant themes with a clinical sample or different age group.  
 If men are able to connect to themes of gratitude in a similar fashion to women, it may help them to make deeper meaning out of this type of intervention.  Future research should include a content analysis of gratitude in a clinical population to determine if these trends may be replicated in a larger sample and if significant findings emerge with a larger sample.  Future research may also explore some mood measures as gratitudes are recorded data in order to determine if recording events with deeper meaning is associated with improved mood.  Conformity to gender roles may also be an important covariate, and will allow for deeper exploration the role of gender in gratitude. Finally, measuring gratitude using quantitative methods may provide results that are more readily interpreted.  




















References
Bono, G., & McCullough, M.E. (2006).  Positive responses to benefit and harm: bringing 	forgiveness and gratitude into cognitive psychotherapy.  Journal of Cognitive 	Psychotherapy, 20(2), 147-158.  
Calson, N. (1987). Woman Therapist: Male Client. In M. Scher, M. Stevens, G. Good, & G. A. 	Eichenfield (Eds.). Counseling and Psychotherapy with Men. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
Emmons, R.A., & McCullough, M.E. (2003).  Counting blessings versus burdens: Experimental 	studies of gratitude and subjective well-being in daily life.  Journal of Personality and 	Social Psychology, 84, 377-389.
Gehart, D.R. & Lyle, R.R. (2001).  Client experience of gender in therapeutic relationships: an 	interpretive ethnography.  Family Process, 40(4), 443-458.  
Gordon, A.K., Musher, D.R., Holub, S.C., Dalrymple, J. (2004). What are children thankful for? 	An archival analysis of gratitude before and after the attacks of September 11, Journal of 	Applied Developmental Psychology, 25 (5), 541-553.
Krause, N. (2006). Gratitude Toward God, stress, and health in late life. Research on Aging, 	28,(2), 163-183.
McCullough, M.E., Emmons, R.A., & Tsang, J. (2002). The grateful disposition: A conceptual 	and empirical topography. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 82, 112-127.
Miley, W.M. & Spinella, M. (2006). Correlations among measures of executive function and 	positive psychological attributes in college students, The Journal of General Psychology, 	133, 2, 175-182. 
Mintz, L. & O'Neil, J.M. (1990). Sex, gender role, and the process of psychotherapy: Theory and 	research. Journal of Counseling and Development, 68, 381-387.
Schimmack, U. & Reisenzein, R. (1997). Cognitive processes involved in similarity judgments of emotions.  Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 73(4), 645-661.
Sheu, H., & Sedlack, W. (2004).  An exploratory study of help-seeking attitudes and coping strategies among college students by race and gender.  Measurement and Evaluation in Counseling and Development, 37, 130-143.  
Van Overwalle, F., Mervielde, I., De Schuyter, J. (1995). Structural modeling of the relationships between attributional dimensions, emotions, and performance of college freshmen. Cognition & Emotion, 9(1), 59-85.
Walker, L.J., Pitts, R.C. (1998).   Naturalistic conceptions of moral maturity. Developmental Psychology, 34(3), 403-419.
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Weiner, B.(1985). An attributional theory of achievement motivation and emotion.  Psychological Review, 92(4), 548-573.















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