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Original Research Article

COMPARATIVE  OBSERVATIONAL  STUDY OF  TWO ETHNIC  
POPULATION COHORTS  OF  PATIENTS  WITH  
HEPATOCELLULAR  CARCINOMA

George Fotopoulos1 , Noha Rashad2, George Pentheroudakis1, Fatma Aboulkassem2,Hussein Khaled2 ,Nicholas Pavlidis1

1. Department of Medical Oncology, Ioannina University Hospital, Greece
2.Department of Medical Oncology , National Cancer Institute, Cairo University, Egypt





Address for correspondence
Nicholas Pavlidis
Dept of Medical Oncology, Ioannina University Hospital 
Niarxou Avenue, 45500, Ioannina, Greece
Tel and Fax:  HYPERLINK "Tel:+302651099394" Tel:+302651099394
Email: npavlid@uoi.gr


           

ABSTRACT

Background: In order to elucidate potential differences in the natural history, clinical presentation and prognosis of patients with hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) from two different continents, we studied demographics, management and outcome data of two cohorts of patients from Egypt and Greece. To our knowledge this is the first study to do so.

Patients and Methods: Data from one hundred and five Egyptian and seventy eight Greek patients with HCC, were retrospectively retrieved and analyzed for demographic, tumor and disease characteristics as well as for treatment and prognostic features. 

Results: Median age at HCC diagnosis was 61 years for Egyptians and 70.5 years for Greeks (p<0.05). Positive serology hepatitis C virus (HCV) status  was seen in 69% vs 8% and HBV status in 7% vs 20% of Egyptian and Greek patients, respectively (p<0.05 and p<0.011). Alcoholic cirrhosis was present in 52% of Greek patients and in none of the Egyptian patients. Median time of preexisting liver disease was 40 months for Egyptians and 12 for Greeks, while the incidence of cirrhosis was 85% vs 52%,respectively (p<0.05). The Egyptian population showed more diffuse type of HCC in imaging studies (p<0.009) and more frequent occurrence of hepatic biochemical abnormalities (p<0.003-0.007). Regarding systemic dissemination, the Egyptian group had a predilection for bone metastases, whereas the Greek group for visceral metastases (p<0.02). Interestingly, lymph nodal involvement was a harbinger of metastatic dissemination in the Greek, but not in the Egyptian population (p=0.023). No statistical difference in overall survival between the two ethnic groups was found.

Conclusions: In a retrospective cohort study, substantial differences emerged between an Egyptian and a Greek population in terms of the etiological factors of HCC (infectious vs alcoholic), the radiological and biochemical pattern of involvement and the pattern of metastatic dissemination. Further epidemiologic studies may provide insights into interpretation of these discrepancies.

 KEY WORDS	Hepatocellular carcinoma; Cirrhosis; Hepatitis B and C virus; Metastases; Carcinogenesi, Genotypes.     

INTRODUCTION

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) accounts for the 5th to 6th most common malignancy and the 3rd major cause of cancer related mortality worldwide. The geographic distribution varies from 3/100.000 in the western world to more than 15/100.000 in Africa or Asia.[1,2] The dominant risk factors in the developing world is chronic hepatitis B and C infections along with aflatoxin exposure, while in developed countries alcohol consumption and non alcoholic fatty liver disease are the most important causes.[2,3]
Several reports have shown that the natural history of HCC is distinct in non-European populations. Although the most common extrahepatic locations are the lymph nodes, lungs, bones, adrenals, substantial differences exist in the metastatic spread between European and non-European patients. The contrasting pattern in the natural history and metastatic behavior could possibly be attributed to the different aetiological factors as well as the different tumor biology. [3,4,5]
In this article, we attempt to compare two HCC patient cohorts of an Egyptian and a Greek origin. Our main goals were to screen for variations in disease presentation, metastatic pattern and outcome between the two study cohorts and provide possible interpretations.


          METHODS

The sample is composed of 78 Greek and 105 Egyptian  patients  , who were diagnosed with HCC of any stage within the last twenty  years (1993-2013). All patient data were retrospectively collected from the Departments of Medical Oncology of the Ioannina University Hospital, Greece and of the National Cancer Institute , Cairo University, Egypt.
The following parameters were recorded and analyzed: Patient demographics  (age of diagnosis,known history of hepatitis B or C virus), pre-existing liver disease  (history of cirrhosis, duration of liver disease and preexisting symptoms such as fatigue, fever, abdominal fullness and pain), tumor characteristics on radiology (multifocal , diffuse or solitary imaging type, largest lesion in diameter) and histology (grade, trabecular, pseudoacinar ,clear cell, fibromellar or no subtype defined), the metastatic pattern (signs  at presentation, organ sites of metastases at presentation, time from diagnosis to development of metastases), laboratory findings at diagnosis (AFP, ALB, Prothrombin Time, TBIL, ALP, SGOT, SGPT, GGT), primary treatment,  and overall survival .  All analyses were performed with the use of SPSS (version 16, SPSS Inc, Chicago, Illinois)
Our null hypothesis is that nationality has no impact in the presentation of these parameters between the two groups. Chi square and Fisher tests were conducted and considered important at a two-sided p level of<0.05. Survival curves were constructed with the product-limit method and compared by means of the logrank procedure.


RESULTS

Patients demographics and histopathological data 

Patients characteristics and pathology diagnosis are shown in Table 1. Chi-Square Test revealed a statistically significant difference regarding distribution of age (p value<0.05), HCV  (69% vs 8%, p value<0.05)  and  HBV status (7% vs 20%, p value: 0.011) .
Statistically significant differences were found in the median time of preexisting liver disease ( 40 vs 12 months, p value<0.05) and the incidence of cirrhosis ( 85.4% vs 51.9, p value<0.05) between the two groups but not in median duration symptom( 2 vs 3 months, p value:0.068)
In the Egyptian group, diagnosis via biopsy was made in 39 patients out of 105 (37%) and in the Greek group in 51 out 78 (65%). Diagnosis of the remaining cases were confirmed by rise of serum AFP level above 500 IU/L , and radiological evidence of disease. Of the 39 Egyptian patients, 31 had HCC of no subtype specified, one had fibromellar HCC, 4 clear cell and 3 trabecular carcinoma. The vast majority had a grade II carcinoma (25 patients). In the Greek group, 39 had a histology of no subtype defined, 5 had a trabecullar carcinoma, 4 pseudoacinar carcinoma, one clear cell and two fibromellar carcinomas. Also in this group the vast majority was of grade II(31 patients). No statistically significant differences emerged on the incidence of these parameters between the two groups.

Imaging and biochemistry data

Radiologic (computed tomography) and liver function tests data are presented in Table 2. The pattern of liver involvement was significantly different in the two groups (p value: 0.009) and the median diameter of the largest lesion was 5.2 cm in the Egyptian and 8 cm in the Greek groups (p-value < 0.05), respectively . 
In addition, statistically significant differences were found between albumin (p value: 0.004), SGPT (p value: 0.007), and total bilirubin (p value: 0.003) median serum levels between groups. 

Clinical data

Table 3 demonstrates the patients� clinical findings (symptoms, signs) at presentation.
Regarding symptomatology, there were statistically significant differences in the incidence of abdominal pain (89 % vs 58 %, p value: 0.0005), abdominal fullness (39 % vs 58 %, p value: 0.017), vomiting (16.5 % vs 36.5 %, p value: 0.001) and  paraneoplastic fever (8.7 % vs 30.8 %, p value: 0.000). Symptoms attributed to metastatic disease at presentation were observed in 16 % in the Egyptian, and in 13 % in the Greek groups.
Concerning physical findings,significantly less frequent appearance of hepatomegaly with jaundice (2.2 % vs 15.9 %, p: 0.002), ascites (20.9 % vs 38.1 %, p: 0.019) and liver failure (2.2 % vs 15.9 %,p: 0.002) was noted in the Egyptian group, while Greek patients were fitter at diagnosis.
In addition, Chi-square Test revealed no statistically significant difference in the overall incidence of metastases between the two groups (p value: 0.119), but if studied separately site by site, there is a trend in the bone metastases (19 % vs 9 % p value: 0.057) favoring the Egyptian group and a statistically significant difference in the other than bone or lymph nodes metastatic sites (9.5 % vs 21.8 % p value: 0.02) favoring the Greek group. In the Greek group, lymph node involvement was significantly correlated to bony metastatic dissemination, the association not holding true in Egyptian group (Table 4). 

Therapeutic management

 Treatment of both groups including chemoembolization, radiofrequency ablation, chemotherapy, hormonotherapy or targeted therapy is shown in Table 5. No statistically significant differences emerged in type of therapy administered in the two cohorts (p value: 0.671).  While the median time to develop metastases for the Egyptian patients was 6 months, the majority of Greeks did not develop metastatic disease during the course of their illness, suggesting a more indolent course(p value<0.05). The median survival time of the Egyptian patients was 4 months, while that of the Greek patients was 5 months (p value: 0.192) (Figure 1)


DISCUSSION

In this publication we attempted to compare the natural history and outcome of two different ethnic cohorts with primary liver cancer and to correlate these findings with particular etiological factors.
Hepatocellular carcinoma is the most frequent primary liver cancer and the most severe complication of chronic liver disease. It represents more than 5 % of  human cancers and the third leading cause of cancer related deaths worldwide [6].The annual proportion of HCC in Egypt showed a significant increase from 4 % in 1993 to 7.2 % in 2002 [7], while in Greece the incidence is 5.2/100000 in males and 2.0/100000 in females [2]. HCC is unique in that it largely occurs within a known established background of chronic liver disease in approximately 80 % of the cases. Major and well known causes of chronic liver disease and cirrhosis include hepatitis B, hepatitis C and alcoholic liver disease. Other risk factors include aflatoxin exposure, pepticides, vinyl chloride, and less well established causes are obesity diabetes mellitus, tobacco and hemochromatosis [8]. 
The differences we have found between the two groups regarding the presentation and course of the disease could be explained by the distinct disease biology attributed to different risk factors. From our results, it is very evident that Egyptians have a strong history of HCV infections, whereas Greeks that of heavy alcohol consumptions.
Clinical and epidemiologic studies suggest that HCV is more hepatocarcinogenic than HBV [9]. HCV virus is a RNA virus that does not intergrate into the host genome. The proteins that have been reported to be associated with carcinogenesis are HCV-core, NS3 and NS5A [10]. HCV core protein regulates various p73 functions, overcoming apoptosis and disruption of growth control, and other key molecular events leading to the development of HCC. Regarding  Egypt, the changes in prevalence of HCV nowadays correlate with the time periods and geographical regions where mass injection treatment campaigns for Schistosomiasis took place over a 30 year period until 1980 [11]. Schistosomiasis induces immune suppression resulting in an increased persistence of viraemia with HCV or HBV [12]. Also, co-infection with Schistosomiasis and HCV could have more severe effects on liver pathology.
Chronic HBV infection has been associated with HCC but the pathogenesis of HBV-malignant transformation is poorly understood. HBV viral DNA integration resulting in chromosomic instability, modulation of cell proliferation through the expression of viral proteins and the alteration of genes in the vicinity of the genomic site of HBV-DNA integration have been proposed as mechanisms [13].  HBV has been classified in different genotypes [14] displaying distinct geographical and ethnic distributions. Genotypes B and C are prevalent in Asia, D in Europe and the Mediterranean coasts, H and F in America, A and E in Africa [15]. Pathogenic differences causing HCC have been reported among HBV genotypes. In a recent study [16], HbeAg positivity was significantly lower in cases infected by genotype D as compared to A, suggesting that late or absent seroconversion could be related to progression of chronic disease. Unfortunately, we could not retrieve data on HBV genotypes in our study, which could explain the demographic differences observed.
Also, six major genotypes of HCV have been defined and more than 50 have been described. The evolution of these genotypes has been influenced by several factors such as migration, immune selection, replication efficiency and infection patterns. Genotype 1 and 2 are more common in Europe and the United states with a prevelance of 70% while genotype 4 is most common in North Africa and the Middle East [17]. Unfortunately nor in this case could we retrieve data on HCV genotypes, but there is a well known established geographic distribution of HCV genotypes [18]. Therefore it is safe to say that this is an additional factor explaining the different tumour biology and characteristics between the two groups.
A cause-effect relation of alcohol intake and liver disease including HCC is well established [19]. Donato et al. [20] proposed a model of liver carcinogenesis through alcohol intake. In the early stages alcohol is metabolized in acetaldehyde which promotes genotoxicity and so the way to cirrhosis is facilitated especially if a hepatovirus is superimposed. In the late stages there is chronic liver disease and the continuous alcohol intake contributes to further inflammation and cell proliferation resulting in cirrhosis and later on HCC. 
According to Ezzat et al. [21] a major segment of the Egyptian population is employed in agriculture and uses pesticides routinely to control insects, weeds, rodents and fungal infections of crops and livestock. A case control study suggested that exposure to organophophorus and carbamate pesticides are additive risk factors to current HCV and HBV infection among rural males while no statistically significant associations between household application and HCC were observed [21]. Aflatoxins are also classified as human carcinogens [22].Mohamed et al. [23] detected a significant higher percent of aflatoxins in the serum of Egyptians with HCC compared to controls. Aflatoxins may cause mutations in the tumor suppressor gene p53 [24], while Hifnawy et al [25] suggested that the progressive nature of HCV-related diseases was influenced by aflatoxin exposure.
The present concept of carcinogenesis in HCC is a multistage process. Macroscopically there is a continuum among the different nodules that could originate from a cirrhotic liver. In the case of high grade dysplastic nodules, usually larger than 5mm, the risk of malignant transformation is 33 %. HCC may also arise as a unifocal disease circumscribed by a fibrotic capsule or as multicentric lesions usually tracking the portal vein or as result of multicentric synchronous occurrence [26]. The morphology of tumors is not distinctly different between developing countries and the developed nations [3]. In Africa most authors adhere to the traditional three patterns of nodular, massive and spreading forms. Any of these patterns can cause a liver enlargement of up to 3 kg. Histologically the appearance is determined by the degree of differentiation and depends on the combination of the structural patterns, the grade of the tumor and other cytologic variations such as fatty change. Therefore one might find a trabecular (most common) or an acinar growth pattern. Of note the good-prognosis fibromellar carcinoma is not usually seen in the setting of chronic viral infection. In our study, we found no statistical difference among the various histological types, although the radiological appearance was of a more diffuse type for the Egyptian population.
Common symptoms [1] in patients with HCC are abdominal pain, weight loss, weakness, fever, jaundice, anorexia and fullness and common physical findings include hepatomegaly, splenomegaly, ascites, wasting and fever. There are some differences observed in presenting signs and symptoms between high and low incidence areas, the most common symptom in high risk areas being abdominal pain and swelling. Jaundice although indicative of an underlying liver disease can be attributed to the HCC only in 10% of patients. In a known cirrhotic patient weakness, malaise, anorexia and wasting should trigger the diagnosis of HCC. Bone pain is seen in 3 % of patients but on autopsy reports pathologic bone metastases are seen in 20% of patients.  Respiratory symptoms are not common at presentation and are usually attributed to an elevated diaphragm as symptomatic lung metastases are rare. Paraneoplastic syndromes such as hypoglycemia, erythrocytosis or hypercalcemia are the first manifestation in up to 20 % of patients. In our series, Greeks were found to clinically present with more paraneoplastic fever, jaundice and ascites and less abdominal pain or bone metastases as well as better performance status.
We have also observed that while in the Greek group lymph node involvement was significantly correlated to bony metastatic dissemination this does not appear to be true in the case of the Egyptian patients, suggesting a more hematogenous pattern of dissemination not consistent with the usual pattern of metastatic spread from the primary site to the adjacent lymph nodes and then to disseminated sites. Taking also into account the statistically significant differences and trends between the two groups in terms of metastatic sites at presentation, as they appear in Table 3 and 4, we can safely assume that regarding the mode of appearance and spread, we have two different types of carcinoma. One could attribute this to the different etiologic factors and mechanisms of carcinogenesis ,resulting in a variety of tumor behavior.
While there are multiple clinical staging systems, comparison among them with external validation suggests that the Barcelona Clinic Liver Cancer staging system based mainly on the natural history of HCC,  has the best prognostic value, therefore, it is widely used both as staging and treatment algorithm [27]. Very early stage corresponds to well �compensated liver function and very well differentiated tumors of less than 2cm in size, with a 5 year survival up to 70 %. Early stage corresponds to patients with PS: 0, compensated liver function, a single nodule or 2-3 cm and a 5 year survival up to 50 %. Intermediate stage corresponds to a PS:0, multinodular tumors and a 3 year survival of 20-40 %. Advanced stage is characterized by portal vein invasion, lymph node involvement and distant metastases and/or a PS: 1-2 with a 3 year survival of no more than 20 %. The worst prognosis with a 1 year survival of 10% is seen in terminal stage patients who have a PS > 2 and decompensated liver function irrespective of tumor characteristics. 
All our patients were treated with a variety of treatments including chemoembolization, chemotherapy, hormonotherapy or targeted therapy, however no statistical significant survival difference was noticed.  

CONCLUSIONS
We conclude that the main aetiologic factors differ between two retrospective cohorts of Egyptian and Greek HCC patients and that the mechanisms of hepatocarcinogenesis vary. Consequently, a possible interpretation for the differences in tumor and host demographics between the two groups could be attributed to distinct disease biology due to different molecular pathways of carcinogenesis. However, confounding factors such as availability of imaging modalities, lifestyle, access to care and reporting biases cannot be ruled out. Still, if indeed different causes and risk factors produce biologically different and distinct HCC tumors, management with targeted therapies tailored by the molecular profile of each HCC type could improve prognosis of these patients.

AUTHORS� CONTRIBUTIONS
GF collected the data, performed the statistical analysis and wrote the manuscript.
NR and FA collected the data.
GP corrected the manuscript.
HK and NP conceived of the study, participated in its design and coordination and helped to draft the manuscript.
All authors read and approved the final manuscript for submission. 

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