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AN OVERVIEW OF THE PATHOPHYSIOLOGY OF VISCERAL PAIN 
 
Alice Catanzaro, Alessandra Di Salvo, Angela Polisca, Giorgia della Rocca�
Dipartimento di Medicina Veterinaria, Universit� degli Studi di Perugia (Italy)
�Corresponding Author: Giorgia della Rocca
tel. +39 075 585 7605
e-mail: giorgia.dellarocca@unipg.it


Summary

Somatic pain has been extensively studied in the past, whereas the interest in visceral pain is relatively new. One explanation why visceral pain has rarely been studied is probably due to the major difficulties to reach internal organs rather than superficial structures.
From a pathophysiological point of view, visceral pain is the result of the transduction, transmission, modulation and integration of a noxious stimulus applied to a viscus. Visceral and somatic pain shares many of the nervous pathways and molecular mechanisms.  However, although there are obvious similarities, the two pathways differ in their pathogenic mechanisms and clinical manifestations. Visceral pain recognises specific, unique mechanisms related to a different density of nerve fibres involved in nociception, wider receptor fields, the intervention of specific mediators able to modulate afferent painful stimulation, the presence of dedicated medullar tracts and brain areas and specific mechanisms involved in the development of visceral hyperalgesia.
The majority of the studies on visceral pain are conducted on animals. Using animals in pain research as a model for human visceral pain clearly presupposes that animals can experience visceral pain. Thus, veterinary practitioners should begin to consider visceral pain in their treatment protocols. 
This review summarises the most recent information regarding the pathophysiology of visceral pain, in order to offer a thorough background for this complicated topic.

Key words: Visceral pain; Stages of visceral stimuli processing; Visceral hyperalgesia; True visceral pain; Referred visceral pain

Introduction

Visceral pain is a relatively new field of interest both in human and veterinary medicine. Visceral pain has been studied less than somatic pain probably due to poor access to internal organs. In the past, moreover, visceral structures were believed to be insensitive to pain, since they were not activated by the same stimuli that initiate nociception in the somatic parts of the body (1). 
However, the knowledge of the pathophysiological and therapeutic aspects of visceral pain in human medicine is rapidly increasing. Most of the studies regarding visceral pain mechanisms are carried out on animal models (especially rodents) and results are then transferred to humans. The use of animals is based on the assumption that there are physiological similarities between humans and other mammals (2). Bearing this in mind, many animal species, included domestic animals such as dogs and cats, can also be assumed to suffer visceral pain via the same mechanisms.
To the best of our knowledge, visceral pain is poorly considered in veterinary literature and in clinical practice both from a diagnostic and a therapeutic point of view, notwithstanding the great number of pathologies affecting domestic animals which can account for its presence. 
The purpose of this review is to summarise the information from current literature, based on studies carried out both in man and animals, on the pathophysiological mechanisms underlining visceral pain, in order to make veterinary practitioners aware of the existence and the complexity of this topic. 

Stages of visceral stimuli processing

A series of steps (the transduction, conduction, modulation, projection and integration of the painful stimulus), very similar to those for somatic painful stimuli, process the visceral noxious stimulus. Thus, the mechanisms related to the passage of the stimulus from periphery to central structures is similar, whatever the origin of the pain. However, each of these steps has specific characteristics which differ, depending on whether the onset of the stimulus is somatic or visceral. In other words, even though pain originating from viscera shares many of the anatomical and functional features of somatic pain, some important differences can be seen within the various steps (1, 3-5).

Transduction

Transduction is the first step in the processing of the noxious stimulus. Transduction can be defined as the conversion of a mechanical, thermal or chemical stimulus (innocuous or noxious) applied at the receptor level in an electric event, which in turn activates the depolarisation of the afferent nerve fibre (4). 
According to the intensity of the activating stimulus, afferent fibres can be classified as follows: i) low-threshold mechanoreceptors, which transduce non-noxious stimuli; ii) intensity-encoding mechanoreceptors, which are low-threshold nociceptors responding to innocuous and noxious mechanical, thermal and chemical stimuli; iii) high-threshold mechanoreceptors, activated only by mainly mechanical, but also chemical noxious stimuli; iv) mechanically insensitive receptors, which usually respond only to chemical stimulation but which, if sensitised, can also respond to mechanical stimulation; v) silent nociceptors, which do not normally respond to any kind of stimulus due to a very high activation threshold, but which become able to fire and participate in the pain response following sensitisation (due to inflammation or particularly prolonged stimulation) (1, 3-10). In the viscera, where only painful sensations can be perceived, visceral afferent innervation is characterised by the presence of intensity-encoding mechanoreceptors, high-threshold mechanoreceptors (nociceptors), mechanically insensitive receptors and silent nociceptors. Although expressed, in absence of sensitisation low-threshold mechanoreceptors do not participate in visceral electric activity (1, 3-5, 8-10). In addition to the above-mentioned neuronal fibres, non-neuronal cells, such as urothelial cells, can also take part in the visceral pain response (5).
Visceral nociceptors, like somatic nociceptors, are specialised free nerve endings, which belong mainly to two classes of fibre, namely A( and C fibres. Nerve endings of A( fibres are relatively low-threshold and are responsible for the first pain, whereas the nerve endings of C fibres are high-threshold polymodal nociceptors, which mediate the second (slow onset) pain. Thus, pain arising from A(-fibres nociceptors is acute and sharp, whereas pain due to the activation of C-fibres is aching and burning (3, 8).
Visceral afferents represent only 5-15% of the total afferent fibres (4, 5, 7, 11, 12). Due to this relatively low amount of fibres with respect to the somatic compartment, viscera have wide receptive fields (the area of a viscus innervated by a single afferent fibre). A specific feature of visceral innervation is that each single A( or C fibre gives rise to several nociceptors. Consequently, the activation of nociceptors located in a wide area of a viscus may stimulate a single fibre. As a result, visceral pain is dull and poorly localised, unlike somatic pain that is often well localized (1, 4, 8).
In viscera, the stimuli which activate the transduction of the various classes of visceral nociceptors differ from those responsible for somatic nociception. Moreover, they can vary according to the morphological characteristics of the organ involved. A sudden contraction of the muscular tunic or an abnormal distension of the visceral wall represents a noxious stimulus in hollow organs, whereas a sudden distension of the coating capsule is considered a painful event acting on parenchymatous organs. The sudden anoxia of smooth muscles, the production and accumulation of algogenic substances, the activity of endogenous chemical substances (e.g. gastric juice) acting on the mucous membranes, the traction or compression of ligaments and vessels, ischemia, necrosis and inflammation are additional stimuli capable of activating visceral nociception (1, 5, 8). In hollow organs, nociception can be activated by both intraluminal and extraluminal stimuli, due to the location of visceral nociceptors at different depths of the organ wall, from the serosa to the mucous layer (3, 10).
Transduction is activated by a wide number of mediators. Although many mediators involved in somatic nociception also act in visceral nociception (e.g. prostaglandins, bradykinin, vanilloids, ATP, endocannabinoids, endogenous opioids, substance P, glutamate, GABA, catecholamines, etc.), other mediators are specific to visceral pain. Serotonin (5HT), cholecystokinin (CCK) and the calcitonin gene related peptide (CGRP) have been found in nerves which serve the visceral compartment, whereas they are expressed to a lesser extent in somatic fibres (1, 7, 13). Table 1 summarises the main mediators contained in visceral primary afferents and at pre- and postsynaptic receptors at the dorsal horn level (14).


Mediators contained in visceral primary afferentsPresynaptic receptors at dorsal horn level Postsynaptic receptors at dorsal horn levelGlutamate, aspartate
SP, NKA, NKB
CGRP
Somatostatin
VIP, galaninCCK
GABAA
5-HT
opioid ((. (, () 
(2-adrenergicNMDA, AMPA
NK1, NK2, NK3
CGRP1, SST3
5-HT1, 5-HT3
opioid ((. (, () 
(2-adrenergic
GABAATable  SEQ Figura \* ARABIC 1 Mediators contained in visceral primary afferents and at the dorsal horn level (pre- and postsynaptic receptors) and involved in processing nociceptive messages. SP, substance P; NKA, neurokinin A; NKB, neurokinin B, VIP: vasoactive intestinal peptide; NMDA, N-methyl-D-aspartate; AMPA: a-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-isoxazole-4-propionate; NK1, NK2, and NK3, neurokinin receptor types 1, 2, and 3; 5-HT1 and 5-HT3, serotonin receptor types 1 and 3; SST3, somatostatin receptor type 3

As in somatic pain, many ion channels (Na++, Ca++, Cl- and K+ channel) are also involved in visceral pain transduction (4, 13, 15).
Like somatic nociceptors, visceral nociceptors can undergo peripheral sensitisation. In fact, transduction can be modified through a series of events. During inflammation or blood pH reduction (i.e. during tissue hypoxia), nociceptors can be sensitised by a group of substances defined as �inflammatory soup�. Among these substances, amines (5-hidrossi-triptamine - 5HT - and histamine), peptides (substance P � SP - and bradykinin), prostaglandins (prostaglandin E2 - PGE2), cytokines, chemokines, proteases, neurotrophins (nerve growth factor- NGF - and glial cell-derived neurotrophic factor - GDNF) and ATP are particularly involved in the peripheral sensitisation process (10, 16). These mediators act directly or indirectly on the ion channels and receptors located on the nociceptors, modifying their number and/or kinetics. In particular, the ability to discharge of calcium and sodium voltage-gated channels (mainly the tetrodotoxin-resistant � TTX-R � sodium channel), acid sensitive ion channels (ASIC), temperature and capsaicin sensitive channels (transient receptor potential vanilloid 1 - TRPV-1) and ligand-gated channels (activated by 5HT, bradykinin and ATP) is increased (1, 10, 12, 16).
Peripheral sensitisation is also due to the activation of �silent nociceptors�. During inflammation, which usually follows tissue hypoxia, ischemia or tissue damage, the level of activation threshold of silent nociceptors is reached (1, 9, 11, 17, 18). Once activated, silent nociceptors become more sensitive to visceral mechanical stimuli and develop spontaneous firing, assuming a very important role in visceral sensitisation (17). 
Moreover, when visceral sensitisation occurs, low-threshold mechanoreceptors (A( fibres, normally not involved in visceral electric activity) begin to conduce noxious stimuli (5, 7).

Conduction

Conduction is the second step in the processing of noxious stimulus, where the action potential initiated at the periphery of the nociceptive fibre runs centripetally along the A( or C fibre axons (4). 
A peculiar feature of visceral afferent innervation is that visceral afferents travel along sympathetic or parasympathetic nerves, giving origin to the spinal and the vagal afferent fibres, respectively. 
The spinal afferent fibres travel through sympathetic prevertebral and paravertebral ganglia without synapsing. Then they cross the white communicant branch and become part of the spinal nerve, ending in the dorsal root ganglia of the spinal cord, where their cellular body is localised (1, 3, 5-7, 19). Frome here, fibres directed to the Rexed lamina (I, II, V and X) take origin (4). 
The cellular body of the vagal afferents is located in the nodose ganglion, the jugular ganglion and in other cranial nerve ganglions. From here, vagal afferents pass through dorsal roots and project to specific areas of the brainstem, to the cervical medulla and to some sensitive nuclei of the cranial nerves. These fibres travel parallel to the vagus nerve or pelvic nerves, and appear able to modulate stimulus intensity rather than have nociceptive functions (3, 8). 
As previously described, visceral afferents represent only 5-15% of the total afferent fibres (4, 7, 11). To overcome the small number of visceral nociceptors, three anatomical features characterise visceral innervation, namely functional divergence, afferent convergence and visceral sensory afferent dichotomy.
1. Functional divergence: afferent fibres travelling along sympathetic nerves reach the ganglia and create collateral fibres which end in different segments of the spinal cord, thus activating an extensive portion of the medulla (1, 3, 5, 7, 19) (fig.1a).
2. Afferent convergence: afferent fibres coming from a viscus synapse at the dorsal horn level with the same second order neuron which receives nerves from other viscera or from either superficial or deep somatic structures, leading to viscero-visceral convergence and viscero-somatic convergence, respectively (1, 3-5, 7, 11, 20) (fig. 1b).
3. Visceral sensory afferent dichotomy: collaterals which innervate different viscera give origin to a single afferent which reaches the medulla: an example is the common innervation of some tracts of the gut and the urinary bladder (6, 20) (fig. 1c).


Fig. 1: Illustration of afferent fibre divergence, convergence and dichotomy. 


Modulation

Modulation is a fundamental step in the pain process. It occurs in the spinal cord, where the incoming, painful stimulus can be either enhanced or attenuated, thanks to facilitatory or inhibitory mechanisms, which can act directly on the dorsal horn or by activating modulatory descendent pathways from upper integration centres (4).
Central sensitisation and long-term potentiation (LTP) are the main local (spinal), excitatory mechanisms which modulate visceral nociception.
Central sensitisation (also referred to as wind-up) is due to the activation of N-Methyl-D-Aspartate (NMDA) receptors by glutamate, which occurs in a very similar manner as in somatic pain (7). Following tissue damage, a large amount of mediators, mainly substance P and glutamate, is released into the medullary synapses (21). Glutamate activates a large number of �-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-4-isoxazolepropionic acid (AMPA) receptors, leading to a massive ion influx in the second order neuron. This ion trafficking is followed by the phosphorylation of the NMDA receptors, which in turn leads to the removal of the NMDA magnesium-dependent block. Once unlocked, NMDA receptors can bind with glutamate (12, 16) to allow the passage of a large quantity of sodium and calcium ions. This leads to a drastic increase in the firing of the 2nd order neuron, which is no longer related to the extension of the peripheral event (wind-up). Once the wind-up is activated, long-term synaptic changes (long term potentiation) may occur (22): the continuous firing of the projection neurons leads to an increased transcription, followed by the production of nitric oxide, PGs and other pro-algogenic substances (19). This activates a vicious circle and causes a further rise in the sensitisation status which lasts longer (23). The NMDA receptors in the visceral compartment may be activated even in the absence of inflammation, following acute innocuous or noxious stimuli (9).
Excitatory pathways descending from the upper integration centres begin at the rostroventral medulla (RVM). From here, serotonergic fibres, also referred to as ON-cells, project to the medulla, where they can facilitate the progression of the stimulus. In fact, ON-cells are able to begin discharging just before a nociceptive reflex is activated (24). 
In opposition to facilitatory mechanisms, two spinal inhibitory mechanisms are involved in the modulation of the visceral noxious stimuli: the gate control and the diffuse noxious inhibitory control (DNIC). 
According to the gate control theory proposed by Melzack and Wall in 1965, C and A( fibres synapse at the dorsal horn with a common inhibitory interneuron. This inhibitory interneuron is activated or inhibited by A( or C fibres, respectively. A( fibres are lower threshold neurons and have a faster conduction than C fibres. Consequently, if an innocuous and a noxious stimulus act concomitantly, the former will activate the inhibitory interneuron and inhibit the passage of the noxious stimulus through the C fibre (25).
The diffuse noxious inhibitory control (DNIC) theory hypothesizes that a counter-irritant stimulation may inhibit pain messages. This phenomenon can be activated only by neurons belonging to the A( and C classes which converge with analogous fibres, and appears to be due to the activation of a circuit formed by the ventrolateral funiculus of the spinal cord (ascending branch), the dorsolateral funiculus (descending branch) and a few supraspinal structures, such as the subnucleus reticularis dorsalis. Thanks to the DNIC mechanism, neurons in the dorsal horn are inhibited by the action of a noxious stimulus applied in any other part of the body with a different receptive field compared to the one from the viscus involved. DNIC acts as a filter, extracting pain signals en route to higher centres. Opioid receptors and other neurotransmitters also appear to be involved (26, 27).
Descending inhibitory pathways were thought to have their cellular body in the locus coeruleus and periaqueductal gray matter (PAG), even though they are currently known to originate from the RVM as well. The so-called OFF-cells originating from the latter area stop discharging just before a nociceptive reflex is activated. The mediators released by inhibitory neurons are mainly noradrenalin and 5HT (24). 5HT permits the inhibition of the noxious stimulus acting on medullary inhibitory inter-neurons which release endorphins, encephalins and dynorphins (inhibitory neurotransmitters) which, in turn, block the release of glutamate and substance P, thus preventing the transmission of the painful stimulus (20).
Finally, a certain number of substances released by encephalic or spinal structures can modulate visceral nociception: (-endorphin and encephalin act as inhibitory mediators, whereas the CCK is one of the substances with an excitatory action. This neurotransmitter appears to play an important role in the modulation of visceral pain, as it is able to activate the vagal afferents which control stimulus intensity (24). 

Projection

Projection is the step during which the stimulus travels from the dorsal horn to the upper nervous system centres (4). 
For a long time, the most important ascending pathways related to visceral nociception were thought to be the spinothalamic and the spinoreticular tract. To date, additional pathways have been identified, including the dorsal column-medial lemniscus system, the spino-trigemino-parabrachio-amygdaloid pathway, the spinohypothalamic tract, the spinomesencephalic tract, the spinocerebellar tract, the spinosolitary tract and the propriospinal tracts. 
The most relevant pathways to project visceral nociceptive stimuli is probably the dorsal column-medial lemniscus system (1, 5, 7, 9, 19, 21, 28). It consists mainly of two groups of fibres called gracile and cuneate neurons, ending in the gracile and cuneate nuclei, respectively. These nuclei also receive the so-called postsynaptic dorsal column (PSDC) neurons, which have their cellular body in the lamina X of the spinal gray matter. These neurons are responsible for the transmission of most nociceptive visceral stimuli. The medial lemniscus system, which ends in the posterolateral nucleus of the thalamus, originates from these two nuclei. The dorsal column pathway appears not only to transmit noxious stimuli, but also to play a facilitating action on the other pathways (9, 21, 29, 30). 

Integration

Integration is the final step in the processing of noxious stimulus, leading to a conscious perception of pain. This step involves several encephalic areas, mutually connected by means of numerous interneurons. Thus, the processing of a stimulus in different areas will have a coordinated response (31). 
The integration of a visceral stimulus can be influenced by other sorts of stimuli (e.g. visual, olfactory, auditory, somatic), which can be responsible for a state of fear or stress in the animal. However, this only occurs if these additional stimuli are transported by afferents which end in the same or related encephalic regions as the visceral afferents (4). 
Brain areas involved in the integration of visceral noxious stimuli are represented by the medial and the lateral pain system. The medial pain system, consisting of midline thalamic nuclei, intralaminar thalamic nuclei, anterior cingulate cortex and insula, controls the emotional aspect of the pain experience. The lateral pain system, consisting of the lateral thalamic nuclei (such as the ventroposterolateral nucleus, one of the most important nuclei involved in the perception of visceral pain) and the somatosensory cortex discriminate the site and type of the painful sensation (3, 24, 28, 31-33). 
Mutual integration between the emotional and cognitive aspects of pain appears to be due to prefrontal cortex activity. In fact, this area is responsible for the emotion-based cognitive aspects of pain, due also to its interactions with the amygdala (34). 
In addition to all these structures, the posterior thalamic nuclei, the vermis and the paravermal areas also appear to be involved in the perception of visceral noxious stimuli, even though the role of these structures has not yet been fully elucidated (28).

Visceral hyperalgesia

The effects of peripheral and central sensitisation result in visceral hyperalgesia, i.e. an increased perception of pain in various organs and apparatuses (3, 5, 10).
Whereas somatic hyperalgesia is always secondary to inflammation, visceral hyperalgesia can also be provoked by non-noxious events affecting body homeostasis, such as a particularly durable and intense stimulation of nerve endings or a stressful condition (3, 7, 9, 20, 24, 35-37). 

Visceral hyperalgesia secondary to a prolonged stimulus
Major activation of NMDA receptors followed by the establishment of a sensitisation status has been thought to occur after a strong visceral stimulus, such as a sudden distension of a hollow visceral wall. In fact, these receptors can be activated by both acute noxious and innocuous stimuli. Thus, the activation of NMDA receptors appears to be responsible for the development of visceral hyperalgesia, even in the absence of inflammation (9). 

Visceral hyperalgesia secondary to a stressful condition
Several brain structures associated with visceral nociception become active following a stressful event. The central nucleus of the amygdala appears to be responsible for the release of the corticotrophin releasing factor (CRF), adrenocorticotropic hormone and glucocorticoids; glucocorticoids would, in turn, promote the expression of genes encoding for CRF synthesis in the neurons of the nucleus. CRF appears to be one of the main substances responsible for the onset of visceral hyperalgesia occurring after a stressful event. Binding to its receptors (CRF1) at a peripheral level, CRF causes the release of several algogenic mediators (e.g. histamine, substance P, tryptase, NGF, brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), PG, cytokines and serotonin), which peripherally activate and/or sensitise nociceptors. Once the sensitisation of peripheral structures has been established, central sensitisation will also follow. Other intracranial portions involved in this process are the locus coeruleus, which also expresses CRF1 receptors, the anterior cingulate cortex, which plays an important role in the memory of the pain process, and the thalamus, where an up-regulation of CRF1 receptors occurs during a status of hyperalgesia (24, 35, 38). Finally, it appears that structures belonging to the rostro-ventral medulla produce facilitatory modulation on visceral reflex nociceptive stimuli, favouring the onset of hyperalgesia during stress conditions.
Of the mediators involved in the process of visceral hyperalgesia, particular attention has to be given to the neurotrophin NGF. This substance affects neuronal plasticity by binding to its specific receptors, and favouring the phosphorylation of kinases regulated by extracellular signals (ERK1 and ERK2), thus enhancing the visceral pain pathways. Phosphorylation may also be the result of glutamate binding with its receptors. Moreover, ASIC1A receptors and neurokinin (NK) receptors have been seen to be involved in this phenomenon. If there is a conscious perception of the stressful event, CCK facilitatory descendant pathways are also activated (35). 
The immune system also plays an important role in stress hyperalgesia. In fact, an increased secretion not only of IL1, IL2, IL6 and TNF, but also of the number of white cells, including T CD8 lymphocytes and natural killers, and a decrease in B lymphocytes concentration have been noticed after acute stress (36). However if the stressful condition persists, the prolonged release of glucocorticoids can cause a reduced production of the afore-mentioned substances and lead to reduction of pain, which is also due to the release of oxytocin and endocannabinoids (35). 
Glial cells also appear to play an important role at the onset of visceral hyperalgesia following stress.

Visceral hyperalgesia is defined as primary hyperalgesia, if it only involves the specific area where the painful stimulus has occurred, as secondary hyperalgesia if it involves areas adjacent to the insulted site and as referred hyperalgesia if it involves areas not directly affected by the painful process. Referred hyperalgesia can also be classified as viscero-visceral hyperalgesia if the hypersensitisation involves viscera other than the affected one, or viscero-somatic hyperalgesia if hypersensitisation is localised in superficial (somatic) areas of the body (7) (see next paragraph). 

True visceral pain and referred visceral pain (with or without hyperalgesia)

A specific feature of visceral pain is that pain originating from a viscus can be perceived in the organ involved by the painful process, in another viscus or in superficial or deep somatic structures. Visceral pain can thus be classified as true visceral pain and referred visceral pain. The latter may or may not be associated with hyperalgesia (5).
True visceral pain is the sensation usually perceived in the early stages of the painful process. It is perceived as a vague sensation, a generalised discomfort, due to the low density of visceral nociceptors and to the functional divergence of the afferents. Neurovegetative signs, such as nausea, vomiting, dysthermia and alterations involving the cardio-vascular, respiratory and motor systems are often associated with true visceral pain (1, 5, 8, 11). True visceral pain is usually of short duration: it stops in a few hours or superficialises into referred pain. 
Referred pain without hyperalgesia can begin as a primary condition or occur as an evolution of true visceral pain. In referred pain, the painful sensation is perceived even (or only) in somatic structures receiving the same sensory innervation of the viscus involved in the insult, due to the convergence of afferents. Referred pain without hyperalgesia appears to be better defined and more localised than true visceral pain. Referred pain can also be accompanied by neurovegetative signs, although less marked than those associated with true visceral pain. In referred pain without hyperalgesia, the stimulation of the involved somatic area does not enhance pain. 
In referred pain with hyperalgesia, painful areas include both somatic (superficial or deep) and visceral structures.  
Viscero-somatic pain with hyperalgesia usually concerns muscular structures, but the skin can also be involved if pain is intense and durable (11). This condition might be related to the convergence of visceral afferents associated with central sensitisation (11, 20). 
Viscero-visceral pain with hyperalgesia is that condition whereby the activation of nociception in a visceral organ gives rise to hyperalgesia in another viscus sharing the same sensitive innervation. Some examples may be the uterus and colon or the urinary bladder and gut (11, 19, 20). The anatomical bases of this condition are not yet entirely clear, although a dichotomy or convergence of visceral sensory afferents originating from different viscera could be taken into account (6, 20).

Conclusions

The mechanisms underlying visceral pain are very sophisticated and account for an endless series of processes which contribute to this unpleasant sensation.
In humans, gastric ulcerations, gastroenteritis, irritable bowel syndrome, pancreatitis, cystitis, urolithiasis, endometriosis and prostatitis can be considered as some of the most frequent causes of visceral pain (39). Many of the conditions responsible for abdominal pain in man can also affect animals. Due to the anatomical and functional similarities in the nervous system of man and other mammals, it is very likely that animals can also suffer visceral pain (19). Moreover, most of the studies on visceral pain have been conducted on animals. Using animals in pain research as a model for human visceral pain clearly presupposes that animals can experience visceral pain (40). 
The control of visceral pain is of fundamental importance not only because of the physical and mental suffering involved, but also because pain may induce a stress response which results in alterations in numerous organs and systems, thus slowing recovery (41, 42).
Comprehension of the biological processes underlying visceral pain represents the basis for a subsequent clinical approach to this complicated topic. 


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