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Manuscript Title:	Hexavalent chromium induced toxicological, physiological and biochemical alterations in Sesbania sesban L. seedlings


*Monalisa Mohanty and Hemanta Kumar Patra


Name and address of Authors:
Monalisa  Mohanty 
*Corresponding author 
Laboratory of Plant Physiology and Biochemistry, Post Graduate Department of Botany, 
Utkal University, Bhubaneswar-751004, Odisha, India
Tel:+91 9861077321
Email:  HYPERLINK "mailto:monalisa.uu.bbsr@gmail.com" monalisa.uu.bbsr@gmail.com

Hemanta Kumar Patra
Laboratory of Environmental Physiology, Post Graduate Department of Botany,
Utkal University, Bhubaneswar-751004, Odisha, India,

Running Title: Phytotoxic effects of hexavalent chromium in sesban



ABSTRACT

Widespread use of chromium in several industrial and mining activities leads to the release of toxic hexavalent chromium (Cr+6) to environment. Screening and identification of hyperaccumulators for possible phytoremediation of Cr+6 from these contaminated sites has gained utmost importance in recent years. A pot culture experiment was conducted to observe the possible phytotoxic effects of hexavalent chromium in an agroforestry species i.e. Sesbania sesban L. (commonly known as sesban). Cr+6 showed significant growth retardation in 21 days old sesban seedlings which includes 80% inhibition in seed germination at 10,000 ppm, 59.6% germination index. At 300 ppm, 67% of seedling survival was noted after 7 days of seedling exposure. A significant variation in root and shoot length of seedlings supplemented with different concentrations of Cr+6 was noticed. Shoot phytotoxicity was amplified from 6% to 31% with elevated supply of Cr+6 from 10 ppm to 300ppm. An increased supply of chromium showed gradual decrease in chlorophyll content of seedlings. Root and leaf catalase activities were considerably increased in sesban seedlings treated with 10 ppm of hexavalent chromium which gradually declined with the increasing supply. Root and leaf peroxidase activities were significantly increased with increasing concentration of Cr+6. Chromium bioaccumulation was more in roots than leaves and stems. Roots showed nearly more than 10 times higher chromium bioaccumulation than stems. The results of the present study reveal the phytoremediation mechanisms developed by sesban seedlings to combat Cr+6 induced various physiological stresses under field condition. 

Key words:	Bioaccumulation; Catalase; Chromium; Peroxidase; Proline; Tolerance index 
Introduction
Global industrialization, extensive mining activities and growing demands of increased human population in this twenty-first century leads to release of huge quantity of toxic heavy metal ions to the environment. Heavy metal phytotoxicity limits plant growth and crop cultivation in acid soils and tremendously affects the crop mortality (Foy 1988). Fe, Mo and Mn are important heavy metals as micronutrients whereas Zn, Ni, Cu, V, Co, W and Cr are toxic elements with high or low importance as trace elements. Chromium (Cr) is the seventh most abundant element on earth (Katz & Salem 1994). Widespread use of chromium in several industrial and mining activities leads to the release of toxic hexavalent chromium to environment. Hexavalent chromium (Cr+6) stresses are one of the major problems in chromite mining area of Orissa. The state of Orissa accounts for 98% chromite reserve of the country (Mohanty et al. 2012).
Out of the different oxidation states of chromium (Cr), hexavalent (Cr+6) and trivalent (Cr+3) chromium are stable in nature. They differ in terms of mobility, bioavailability and toxicity. Cr+3 are essential for animal and human health (Katz and Salem 1994) whereas Cr+6 is a potent, extremely toxic, carcinogen and may cause death to animals and humans, if ingested in large doses. Various mutagenic, toxic and carcinogenic effects has been imposed by chromium compounds in biological systems (Panda and Patra 1997a and 1997b; Zayed and Terry 2003; Ghosh and Singh 2005; Mohanty and Patra 2010; Mohanty et al. 2011). Cr+6 usually occurs in association with oxygen as chromate (CrO42-) or dichromate  (Cr2O-7)  oxyanions  that  have  a  long  residence  time  and  high solubility in the water (Klieman and Cogliatts, 1998). Seed germination is the first physiological process affected by Cr+6 (Peralta et al. 2001). The metal ions exert their toxic effect on cell metabolism when it reaches a threshold level in soil. Sensitive species serve as an indicator and tolerant species which collect large amount of metals in their cell wall without any damage to cellular system, were detected as accumulators (Bradshaw et al., 1965).  
Sesbania sesban commonly known as sesban has proved to be extremely popular leguminous agroforestry species due to its fast growth and wide use as fuel wood and fodder. It has also proved to be extremely tolerant of a wide range of sites including those which can be regarded as difficult such as saline, waterlogged. Sesbania sesban has high efficiency in fixing atmospheric nitrogen and producing high biomass. These plants are used as a fodder and forage plant in India and Taiwan (Allen and Allen 1981). It is also planted as an intercrop for soil improvement because it bears nitrogen fixing root nodules. The plant could be used for reclamation of mine sites which overcome the two major problems for plant establishment on mine tailings i.e. toxicity of heavy metals and deficiency of major nutrients. There is a huge dearth of information on the toxicological changes in sesban plant under Cr stress. The present study assess the phytotoxic impacts of Cr+6 which include growth impairment studies, physiological, biochemical and toxicological changes in 21 days grown sesban seedlings. The pot culture experiment was carried out in the nursery site of Post Graduate Department of Botany, Utkal University, Odisha during the month of January to April. 
Materials and methods
Experimental design and plant material
Pot culture experiments were conducted in completely randomised design. Dry graded seeds of sesban (Sesbania sesban L. Merrill.) were  procured  from National Seed Corporation, Bhubaneswar  and were  surface  sterilized with  0.1% mercuric  chloride  (w/v)  for  5 minutes (Mohanty and Patra 2011b). 
Germination study
The pretreated uniform  healthy sesban seeds were germinated in petriplates over saturated cotton pads supplemented with different concentrations of Cr+6 (source: K2Cr2O7) viz. 5ppm, 10ppm, 100ppm, 200ppm, 500ppm,  1000ppm, 1500ppm, 2000ppm,  2500ppm,  3000ppm,  4000ppm,  5000ppm,  8000ppm,  10000ppm along with a control for two days inside BOD incubator at 25 � 2 0C. After 48 hours (two days) the number of germinated seeds under each treatment of Cr+6 was counted.  The germination percentage and germination index (IG %) of seeds were calculated (APAT 2002). 
Growth analysis of sesban seedlings
The seeds were germinated in earthen pots (size: height 30cm and diameter 15cm) containing 5 kg garden soil (control: Cr+6 -0ppm) and after 7 days of plant growth in uncontaminated control garden soil, the pots were supplemented with selected concentrations of Cr+6 (10ppm, 100ppm, 200ppm and 300ppm) and were grown at the nursery site of Department of Botany, Utkal University for 21 days. Pots supplemented with half strength Hoagland nutrient solution (Hoagland and Arnon 1938) were taken as control treatment.
Toxicological analyses
The toxicological effects of Cr+6 were expressed in terms of % phytotoxicity, germination index and tolerance index (TI) which were calculated by the methods prescribed by Labra et al. (2006) and Datta et al. (2011).
Analysis of Biochemical Parameters
Analysis of seedling growth, pigment content and proline accumulation was conducted using 21 days grown sesban seedlings.  The extraction of chlorophyll was made using cold alkaline acetone (80% v/v) and calculated as per the methods of Arnon (1949) with a little modification (Porra 2002). Proline was estimated as per method of Bates, Waldren and Teare (1973). Enzyme extraction and assay were carried out at 4�C. Catalase (CAT) and peroxidase  (POD) enzyme assay and activity were measured as per the method of Chance and Maehly (1955) with a little modification (Patra and Mishra 1979). 

Total Cr bioavailability in plant tissues
Twenty one days old sesban seedlings grown in different treatment of Cr+6 were analyzed for total Cr content in roots and shoots (Bonet et al., 1991).  Before  analysis  of  total  Cr  content,  the  roots were  rinsed with  0.01N HCl  followed by  washing  with  distilled  water  for  removing  mixed  Fe and Cr hydroxides, which may have precipitated on  the root surfaces. Root, stem and leaves of 21 days old sesban seedlings from different treatment pots of Cr+6 were oven dried and grinded separately to fine powders. The Nitric acid (HNO3) and Perchloric acid (HClO4) in the ratio of 10:1 were added to the weighed and grinded plant powder samples (roots, stems and leaves) separately and kept for 24 hours overnight (Bonet, Poschenrieder and Barcelo 1991). Then the acid mixed plant samples were digested and extracted for metal content using MDS-8 (Microwave Digestion Unit). The acid digested solutions were filtered and the final volume was made up to 100 ml. Total Cr bioaccumulation in different parts of plants were estimated by analysing those extracted liquid samples in an Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometer (Perkin Elmer, AAanalyst 200, USA).
Statistical analysis. 
The experiments were conducted in triplicates for each treatment and the data presented in the figures and tables are mean � SEM (Standard Error of Mean) of three replicates. LSD values were calculated and DMRT test was conducted showing significant variation in treatment means. One-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) was carried out to compare the means of the different treatments where F values were detected.
Results and Discussion
Seed Germination affected by Cr stress
The seed germination test under increasing concentrations of Cr+6 ranging from 10 to 10,000 ppm showed gradual inhibition. Seeds germinated under different concentration of Cr+6 showed significant reductions in germination percentage as compared to control (Fig. 1a). The germination % ranged from 20-98% with decreasing concentrations of Cr+6 treatments (Fig. 1). The reduced germination of sesban seeds under Cr+6 stresses would be due to the depressive effect of Cr on the subsequent transport of sugars to the embryo axis (Zeid 2001). The percentage germination index (IG) as shown in Table 1 was computed from combined data. The IG% value was reduced to 59% when the seeds are exposed to 300 ppm of Cr+6. The % survival of seedlings after treatment with increasing concentrations of Cr+6 was also reduced from 87% (control- 0 ppm of Cr+6) to 67% (300 ppm of Cr+6) (Plate 1).  The reduction in germination of sesban seeds may be attributed to increased protease activity under chromium stress (Datta et al, 2011; Zeid 2001). 


Growth impairment in response to Cr+6 stresses
The growth parameter studies of sesban seedlings grown for 21 days under different treatments of Cr+6 showed significant deterioration in seedling growth with increasing supply of Cr+6 (Plate 1, Table 1 and Fig. 1b). Root and shoot length of sesban seedlings were significantly (at pd"0.05) affected with toxic concentrations of Cr+6 among the different treatments in comparison to control after 21 days of growth. The effect of Cr+6 (300ppm) on root was found to be highly toxic as the length of the roots have been significantly reduced as compared to control. Similar results have been reported by several other workers in other plants (Bonnet et al., 2000; Mohanty et al., 2008; Zayed and Terry 2003). The deleterious effect was more pronounced in root and shoot biomass of 21 days grown sesban seedlings supplemented with Cr+6 (300ppm). Root  growth  inhibition is a primary toxic effects  of  heavy metals (Wong and Bradshaw 1982) and  this  parameter is an ideal  index  to  measure  the  degree  of  tolerance. The difference in the tolerance index of roots and shoots  towards different concentrations of Cr+6 showed a declining trend with increasing concentration of Cr+6 (Table 1). Hexavalent chromium affects plant growth and metabolism by decreasing nutrient uptake and photosynthetic abilities (Barcelo et al, 1993; Bonet et al., 1991).
Reduction of growth parameters was scored for all concentrations of Cr+6 tested; at low concentration of Cr+6 (10 ppm) the damage was not fatal. A consistent growth inhibition was observed starting from 10 ppm of Cr+6 (Table 1 and Fig. 1b) with the highest inhibition occurring at 300 ppm. A significant decrease in root length was observed when the sesban plants were supplemented with Cr+6 beyond 100 ppm concentrations. Shoot length of sesban seedlings treated with different concentrations of Cr+6 showed significant difference from each other at P d" 0.05 (Table 1). Root fresh weight values of seedlings treated with Cr+6 (300 ppm) significantly decreased in comparison to control and other treatments. 
The % phytotoxicity to roots and shoot of 21 days grown sesban seedlings under different Cr+6 treatments  showed  an  increasing  trend with  increasing Cr+6 concentration. The highest % phytotoxicity value of shoot (31.3) was found in plants supplied with 300 ppm of Cr+6. In case of % phytotoxicity of root similar observation was found (Table1). The different concentrations of Cr+6 significantly (Pd"0.05) contributed towards % phytotoxicity of root and shoot. 
Tolerance index (TI) represents the relative growth rate of the plants and is equal to the growth of seedlings under Cr+6 treatment divided by the growth in control, the quantity multiplied by 100. TI of root length and fresh weight are commonly used to quantify plant metal tolerance (Tuner 1994).  The higher the TI, the better is the tolerance. Results from the seedling tolerance studies showed that Fresh weight TI was better than root tolerance index (Table1). Root lengths are less substantially impaired by Cr stress than fresh weights (Table 1). The data for IG%, % phytotoxicity and tolerance index indicates that sesban is less sensitive to chromium and is a tolerant species.
The results of the experiments highlight the complex nature of plants� tolerance to Cr+6. The most likely explanation for the increased root tolerance is that there are increased activities of antioxidative enzymes like catalase (1:11:1:6) and peroxidase (1:11:1:7) in roots as compared to shoots as evident from Table 2. These enzymes are mostly associated with the scavenging of toxic free radicals produced as a result of Cr stress. These enzymes plays important role to detoxify and sequester Cr, and therefore, the roots appear to be the major site of enzyme synthesis. This finding is consistent with the results obtained from previous studies with cadmium (Cd) tolerance conducted by Zhu et al. in 1999.  The researches found that the activities of catalase and peroxidase in the roots of sesban plants were about 2-fold higher than in shoots (Table 2). The translocation of less toxic and reduced amount of Cr from the root to the shoot through the xylem was probably driven by transpiration as reported for other metals by Salt et al. (1995). Another possible explanation for the observed difference between fresh weight and root length tolerance is that gluthathione (GSH) and phytochelatin (PC) are involved in heavy metal tolerance rather than uptake as reported by Yadav (2010) and Lee (2003).  
Toxic effects of Cr+6 on Biochemical Parameters
Effect of Cr+6 on Chlorophyll and proline content
A significant deterioration in chlorophyll content of sesban leaves were observed with increasing supply of Cr+6 when grown for 21 days  (Fig. 2 and Table 2). The increased Cr stress causing reduction in chlorophyll content was attributed to ultrastructural damage (Bonet et al., 1991). Similar  reports  on  the  impacts  of  metal  toxicity  are available  in  different  plants  (K�sesakal 2005; K�sesakal 2011; Liu et al. 2008; Mohanty et al., 2005).  An increased total  chlorophyll  content was  observed at  the  lower  level  of Cr+6 (10 ppm) treatment obviously  due  to better growth of sesban seedlings. The formation of chlorophyll pigment depends on the adequate supply of iron as it is the main component of the protoporphyrin, a precursor of chlorophyll synthesis. An excessive supply of chromium seems to prevent the incorporation of iron into the protoporphyrin molecule, resulting in the reduction of chlorophyll pigment (Bera et al., 1999; Datta et al. 2011). Similar events of reduced pigment biosynthesis have been reported under salt stress (Ingram and Bertels, 1996; Mohanty and Patra 2011b). Chromium degrades �-aminolevulinic acid dehydratase, an important enzyme involved in chlorophyll biosynthesis, thereby affecting �-aminolevulinic acid (ALA) utilization; this results in the buildup of ALA and reduction of the level of chlorophyll (Vajpayee et al. 2000). Chromium, mostly in its hexavalent form, can replace Mg ions from the active sites of many enzymes. Cr+6 also causes Fe deficiency in stressed plants, disrupting chlorophyll biosynthesis (Liu et al. 2008; Zou et al. 2006). The total chlorophyll content decreases linearly with increasing concentration of Cr +6 (Fig. 2) (Slope:-0.2699 and R2=0.97). Increasing concentrations of Cr +6 shows linear increase in proline accumulation (Fig. 3). Proline content is the only amino acid that accumulates to a greater extent in the leaves of plants under stress. Results reported in the Figure 3 showed that proline contents increases with the increase in concentration of Cr+6 because the proline is the only amino acid that accumulates to a greater extent in the leaves of many plants under stress (Mohanty and Patra 2011b). In the present investigation, higher proline content was observed at 300 ppm (114.7 mg gm-1 Fr. Wt.) of Cr and the decrease may be related with the reduced growth of plant (Fig. 3). Proline  accumulation  is  an  important  parameter  to recognize  the  stress  impact  on  plants (Levitt 1980; Mohanty and Patra 2011b; Yoshida et al. 1995). Proline accumulation may also help in nonenzymic free radical detoxifications (Maslenkova, Miteva and Popova 1992; Mohanty and Patra 2011b). Increasing proline  level  is considered to help the cells in osmoprotection  as  well  as  in  regulating  the  redox potential,  scavenging  hydroxyl  radicals  and  gives  the protection  against  denaturation  of  various macromolecules (Khan, Singh and Panda 2002). Correlation coefficient (R2) values exhibited good linear correlation between different increasing concentrations of Cr+6 and proline accumulation in 21 days grown sesban seedlings. In the present context, a uniform increase in the proline level was noticed when the sesban seedlings were subjected to increased concentrations of Cr+6.
Effect of Cr+6 on catalase and peroxidase activity 
A significant increase in root and leaf catalase activities were observed in sesban seedlings treated with 10 ppm Cr+6 but the activity showed declining trend with increasing supply of Cr (Table 2). Root and leaf peroxidase activities were significantly increased with increasing concentration of Cr+6 (Table 2). Plants under different treatments of Cr+6 showed significant variation in their catalase and peroxidase activities. Peroxidase and Catalase are two potent scavengers of H2O2, which minimize its accumulation and diffusion across cell membranes, preventing peroxidative damage to cell constituents. Enhancement in the activities of both roots and leaf CAT activity were recorded at low Cr+6 stress (10ppm) and this possibly contributed to enhancement of scavenging of H2O2 in these plants. After the treatment with 300 ppm Cr+6 for 21 days, some decreases in the activities of POD in roots and leaves were observed. This can be interpreted as a sign of cytotoxicity due to overproduction of reactive oxygen species (ROS) (Zou et al., 2009).
Chromium bioaccumulation in sesban
Chromium bioaccumulation in root stem and leaves gradually increases with supply of elevated concentrations of Cr which corroborate the findings of other researchers in different plants (Mohanty et al., 2008; Zou et al., 2009). Maximum Cr accumulation was observed in roots of sesban seedlings for all the treatments in comparison to stem and leaves (Fig. 4). Cr bioaccumulation in leaves was double than that of the stems. Sesban seedlings after 21 days of growth in different concentrations of Cr+6 showed significant variations in their root, stem and leaf bioaccumulation pattern. Maximum bioaccumulation of Cr was observed for seedlings treated with 300 ppm of Cr+6.
Conclusion
The present study revealed deleterious impacts of varying concentrations of Cr+6 on germination, growth parameters indicating its phytotoxicity and tolerance ability, photosynthetic pigments, antioxidant enzymes. The above studies on phytotoxic effects explain the severity of Cr pollution and cater to the need for safe removal of toxic chromium from the contaminated environment. The study concludes that sesban plants could grow under chromium stress and protect themselves from phytotoxicity of Cr by altering various metabolic processes. A field study is recommended to find effect of natural variables (temperature, pH, light, soil quality, etc.) on the above laboratory based results. The  findings  of  the  present  research  investigation  will  help  to  prescribe  the  evolved chromium phytoremediation technology  for  practical  application  under  field  condition. Suitable phytoremediation techniques will be beneficial for sustainable ecosystem and stability to improve mining environment.
Acknowledgement
The authors are greatly thankful to the financial assistance provided by CSIR through CSIR-ES scheme for smooth running of the research work.
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