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�2,�30�3T0R8t*�8�08��0@!>]!,*+�!$�!�!!!8383+!!!�3X#X#X#X#��$����	�����������Characteristics of electroencephalographic arousal occurring during different sleep phases in children with sleep-disordered breathing


Liu Dabo,Huang Zhenyun, Zhong Jianwen, Qiu Shuyao, Zhou Jing 
Department of otorhinolaryngology, Guangzhou Children's Hospital 
Correspongding author: Liu Dabo
No.318 Renmin Zhong Road, Guangzhou, 510000
Email: daboliu@126.com
Tel:18818810919












Abstract
Objective: To explore the characteristics of electroencephalographic (EEG) arousal occurring during different sleep phases in children with sleep-disordered breathing (SDB).
Method: 18 children (16 boys and 2 girls; age range: 4~13 years), treated at our hospital, were enrolled in the study, of whom 10 had obstructive sleep apnea-hypopnea syndrome (OSAHS). All these children underwent polysomnographic monitoring.
Results: Spontaneous arousal index, limb movement-related arousal index, and respiratory-related arousal index observed during non-rapid eye movement (NREM) sleep were significantly higher than those during rapid eye movement (REM) sleep (z = -4.683, -2.785, and -2.354; p=0.000, 0.005, and 0.019, respectively). The percentages of respiratory events (apnea plus hypopnea) terminated with an arousal during NREM and REM sleep were 21.64% and 33.14%, respectively, showing a significant difference (�2=16.339, P=0.000). Only 9.49% of EEG arousals observed during NREM sleep occurred during slow-wave sleep, while the others occurred during stages  = 1 \* ROMAN I and  = 2 \* ROMAN II of sleep. The percentages of apnea and hypopnea terminated with an arousal were 38.35% and 20.75%, respectively, showing a significant difference (�2=33.813, P=0.000). The mean duration of hypopnea-related EEG arousals was significantly longer than that of apnea-related ones. Moreover, the mean duration of apnea-related EEG arousals occurring during NREM sleep was significantly longer than that in REM sleep.
Conclusion: Spontaneous arousal index, limb movement-related arousal index, and respiratory-related arousal index during NREM sleep were significantly higher than those in REM sleep. Compared with respiratory events present during REM sleep, fewer were terminated with an arousal during NREM sleep.
Key words: Sleep-disordered breathing; non-rapid eye movement; rapid eye movement; EEG arousal





Introduction
As scientific and technological levels are raised and more attention is paid to sleep disorders in children, the research on sleep in children with sleep-disordered breathing (SDB) has shifted from sleep macrostructure to sleep microstructure (i.e., arousal). At present, the majority of studies [1, 2] suggests that there is no significant difference in sleep structure between SDB children and normal children. In other words, sleep macrostructure (i.e., sleep efficiency and the proportions of various sleep stages) in SDB children is not changed, and sleep disturbance that is observed in these children is ascribed to changes in the microstructure of sleep, which mainly manifest as restless sleep [3]. It has been known that electroencephalographic arousals (EEG arousal) occurring during nighttime sleep can result in sleep fragmentation and a reduction of slow-wave sleep and REM sleep in adults with SDB; i.e., arousal can cause a change in sleep phase. However, as mentioned above, the majority of studies suggests that there are no significant changes in sleep structure in SDB children. Thus, the relationship between sleep phase and EEG arousal in children is still unclear. This study aims to solve this question.
Subjects and methods
 = 1 \* ROMAN I. Subjects: During the period, a total of 96 children underwent polysomnography (PSG) monitoring due to a chief complaint of sleep-disordered breathing at our hospital. Of these children, 30 (whose parents) were reluctant to participate in the study, 17 had hyperactivity disorder and were receiving drug treatment, 6 had Down syndrome, 1 had mucopolysaccharide disease, and 17 had epilepsy and were receiving drug treatment. Thus, 78 children were excluded, and only the remaining 18 children, including 16 boys and 2 girls, were included in the study. The guardians of all children signed informed consent forms. These children ranged in age from 4 to 13 years. Their parents complained that they had varying degrees of snoring and mouth breathing during night sleep. Some children also had suffocation problems or labored breathing during sleep, night sweat, restless sleep, daytime hyperactivity, inattention, and retarded growth and development. The duration of diseases ranged from 8 months to 6.5 years. Physical examination revealed varying degrees of tonsil and/or adenoid hypertrophy in these children. All children underwent polysomnography monitoring during night sleep for at least 7 hours. According to the polysomnographic results, 10 of 18 children had obstructive sleep apnea-hypopnea syndrome (OSAHS) (based on the criteria released in 2007 in the �Draft of Guidelines for the Diagnosis and Treatment of Pediatric Obstructive Sleep Apnea Hypopnea Syndrome� [4]: obstructive apnea index (OAI) > 1 time/h or apnea hypopnea index (AHI) > 5 times/h, and lowest oxygen saturation ( LSaO2 )< 92%).
 = 2 \* ROMAN II. Methods
1. PSG detection: The Polysmith Sleep System (version 4.0; 36 channels) was used to conduct polysomnographic investigations in SDB children during night sleep. All children undergoing polysomnography should have had no respiratory tract infection within 2 weeks and should not have taken sleeping pills or drink wine, tea, or coffee. Considering that these children were too young, they stayed in the monitor room together with their parents. All children should urinate before going to bed and avoid vigorous physical activity. Electroencephalograhic activity, eye movements, electromyographic activity, oral and nasal airflow, thoracoabdominal respiratory movements, electrocardiographic activity, blood oxygen saturation, and snores were synchronously recorded. All monitoring data were automatically played back on a computer to conduct artificial analysis and corrections.
2. Definitions of sleep parameters: Obstructive sleep apnea [4] is a disorder characterized by a cessation of oronasal airflow in the presence of thoracoabdominal movements. The duration of obstructive sleep apnea should be equal to or greater than 2 respiratory cycles. Hypopnea [4] is defined as a disorder characterized by a reduction of respiratory airflow intensity (magnitude) by more than 50% (compared with basal levels), a decrease in blood oxygen saturation by more than 0.03, and/or the presence of an arousal. An EEG arousal5 is defined as an abrupt shift in EEG frequency, lasting for 3 seconds or more. Prior to EEG arousal, a period of sleep for 10 s or more must exist. EEG arousals occurring during non-rapid eye movement (NREM) sleep are evaluated only according to EEG manifestations, while those occurring during rapid eye movement (REM) sleep must be evaluated according to both EEG manifestations and an increase in electromyographic activity of the mentalis. Based on the presence of a definite cause (such as respiratory events and limb movements) or not, EEG arousals are classified as spontaneous and event-related ones. Spontaneous EEG arousals occur spontaneously and are unrelated to technical operation and respiration. In this study, event-related EEG arousals were further classified as respiratory- and limb movement-related EEG arousals, as well as other arousals. Respiratory-related EEG arousal events refer to those occurring within 3 seconds following the end of a respiratory event. In this study, respiratory-related EEG arousals were further classified as apnea- and hypopnea-related ones. Limb movement-related EEG arousals refer to those occurring within 1-2 seconds following the end of a limb movement event. Apnea-hypopnea index (AHI, times/h), obstructive apnea index (OAI), EEG arousal index (ArI), respiratory-related EEG arousal index, spontaneous EEG arousal index, and limb movement-related EEG arousal index were calculated according to the following formulas:
Apnea-hypopnea index = the total number of apnea and hypopnea episodes/total sleep time;
Obstructive apnea index = the total number of obstructive apnea episodes/total sleep time;
EEG arousal index = the total number of EEG arousals/total sleep time;
Respiratory-related EEG arousal index = the total number of respiratory-related EEG arousals/total sleep time;
Spontaneous EEG arousal index = the total number of spontaneous EEG arousals/total sleep time;
Limb movement-related EEG arousal index = the total number of limb movement-related EEG arousals/total sleep time;
Total sleep time was measured in hours.
 = 3 \* ROMAN III. Statistical analysis: Statistical analysis was performed using the SPSS10.0 software package. The one-sample Kolmogorov-Smirnov test (K-S test) was used to evaluate the distribution of samples. Because the samples did not follow a normal distribution, the Mann-Whitney U test was conducted. The Pearson chi-square test was used to compare count data. A P value < 0.05 was considered significant.
Results
1. The respiratory-related EEG arousal index, spontaneous EEG arousal index, and limb movement-related EEG arousal index observed during NREM sleep were compared with those observed during REM sleep. The results showed that the 3 indices observed during NREM sleep were significantly higher than those observed during REM sleep (table 1).
2. The percentage of respiratory events with EEG arousal observed during NREM sleep was compared with those observed during REM sleep. The results showed that 730 and 344 respiratory events were observed during NREM and REM sleep, respectively, of which 158 (21.64%) and 114 (33.14%) were terminated with an EEG arousal, respectively. Statistical analysis indicated that the percentage of respiratory events with EEG arousal observed during NREM sleep was significantly lower than those observed during REM sleep. Of 158 respiratory-related EEG arousals observed during NREM sleep, 15 (9.49%) occurred during slow-wave sleep, and the remaining 143 (90.51%) occurred during stage  = 1 \* ROMAN I or  = 2 \* ROMAN II sleep (table 2).
3. The number of respiratory events was counted. A total of 279 apnea events and 795 hypopnea events were observed. The number of apnea events with EEG arousal and hypopnea events with EEG arousal were 107 (38.35%) and 165 (20.75%), respectively. The percentage that the number of apnea events with EEG arousal accounted for in the total number of apnea events was higher than the percentage that the number of hypopnea events with EEG arousal accounted for in the total number of hypopnea events (table 3).
4. The duration of apnea- and hypopnea-related EEG arousals occurring during NREM sleep was compared with those occurring during REM sleep. The results indicated that the duration of apnea-related EEG arousals occurring during NREM sleep was significantly longer than those occurring during REM sleep. Moreover, the duration of apnea-related EEG arousals was also compared with that of hypopnea-related EEG arousals. The results showed that the duration of hypopnea-related EEG arousals was significantly longer than that of apnea-related ones (table 4).
Discussion
A normal sleep cycle consists of alternating NREM and REM sleep. At present, some evidences show that sleep phase is associated with the occurrence of EEG arousal in children with SDB. The threshold of EEG arousal is highest during slow-wave sleep and lowest during REM sleep [6, 7]. Slow-wave sleep plays an important role in the consolidation of memory during wakefulness. Moreover, it has been found that reorganization of neural circuits occurring during slow-wave sleep can facilitate the development of new cerebral cortex. Therefore, some researchers believe that the effects of sleep disorders result from the interruption of slow-wave sleep [8]. In this study, we found that the percentage of respiratory events that were terminated with an EEG arousal occurring during NREM sleep was significantly lower than those occurring during REM sleep. Of 158 respiratory-related EEG arousals observed during NREM sleep, 15 occurred during slow-wave sleep, and the remaining 143 occurred during stage  = 1 \* ROMAN I= or = = 2 \* ROMAN II sleep. These results suggest that there may exist an arousal inhibitory mechanism during NREM sleep, especially during slow-wave sleep. However, our results also showed that spontaneous ArI, limb movement-related ArI, and respiratory-related ArI observed during NREM sleep were significantly higher than those observed during REM sleep, indicating that the number of EEG arousals occurring during NREM sleep is higher than that during REM sleep in spite of the existence of an arousal inhibitory mechanism during NREM sleep in SDB children. It should be noted that these EEG arousals were mainly present during stages  = 1 \* ROMAN I and  = 2 \* ROMAN II sleep, suggesting that there exists a slow-wave sleep-protecting mechanism in children with SDB. Additionally, it is well known that normal sleep structure is pivotal for the physical and mental development of children. REM sleep emerges at the advanced stage of the nervous system and is closely related to the development and maturation of the nervous system. Previous observation that oxygen consumption during REM sleep is higher than in vigorous physical and mental activity during wakefulness also suggest that REM sleep can facilitate brain development and maturation, and promote learning and memory through helping to establish new synaptic contacts [9]. Therefore, though the percentage of respiratory events with EEG arousal occurring during REM sleep was higher than that during NREM sleep, the fact that the number of EEG arousal during NREM sleep was still higher suggests that REM sleep is also essential for brain development in children. In addition, the presence of fewer EEG arousals during REM sleep also provides a mechanism to protect sleep, suggesting that EEG arousals mainly occur during stages  = 1 \* ROMAN I and  = 2 \* ROMAN II sleep in SDB children and have no big effects on REM sleep and slow-wave sleep.
In this study, we counted the total number of respiratory events. A total of 279 apnea events and 795 hypopnea events were observed. The numbers of apnea events with EEG arousal and hypopnea events with EEG arousal was 107 (38.35%) and 165 (20.75%), respectively. Statistical analysis indicated that the percentage that the number of apnea events with EEG arousal accounted for in the total number of apnea events was greater than the percentage that the number of hypopnea events with EEG arousal accounted for in the total number of hypopnea events. Moreover, the duration of hypopnea-related EEG arousals was significantly longer than that of apnea-related ones. Currently, studies on this topic are few. Nigro et al [10] found that the duration of apnea-related EEG arousals was longer than that of hypopnea-related ones, which is inconsistent with our result. They speculated that pharyngeal wall collapse or surface tension might explain their observation. In other words, as a larger force is required to open the airway in the case of complete airway closure, apnea (compared to hypopnea) more easily results in arousal and prolongs the duration of arousals, thereby exerting a bigger effect on sleep. Furthermore, because the duration of EEG arousal is evaluated artificially, artificial deviation may lead to different results. In fact, the minimum length of EEG arousals was set at 3 s mainly because of the convenience of judgment, but not because of strict pathophysiological consideration [11]. For example, Kohyama J et al. [12] discovered that after OSAS children underwent surgical treatment, the number of short (1 s or more and less than 3 s) or intermediate (3 s or more and less than 10 s) subcortical arousal responses (SCA) decreased significantly while the number of long (10 s or more) SCAs exhibited no obvious changes. Thus, they concluded that short and intermediate subcortical arousal responses were more sensitive in subcortical involvement in OSAS children. However, this conclusion was drawn based on the study on subcortical arousal responses. In terms of EEG arousal responses, it is still unclear at what length arousals have the maximum effect on sleep and which factor, the duration or the frequency of arousals, is more important. Therefore, further basic and clinical studies are needed to resolve these questions.
This study has some limitations. First, a relatively small number of children were included when comparing the occurrence of various arousals between NREM sleep and REM sleep. Second, no normal control group was set, because the parents of children without a chief complaint of SDB were reluctant to participate in the study.
Conclusion
Spontaneous arousal index, limb movement related arousal index and respiratory related arousal index occurring in non-rapid eye movement (NREM) stage were significantly higher than those in rapid eye movement (REM) stage. When compared to the respiratory events during REM stage, the respiratory events during NREM stage was less apt to terminated with arousal. Of course, these arousals mainly occurred during sleep stage`!anda!, and children with SDB had a mechanism of protecting slow wave sleep and REM sleep.




References
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