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��ࡱ�>��	uw����t�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������[���0K{bjbj����	:�ΐΐ�@6�������[[[[[����ooo8��C4o�)�w����~~~�(�(�(�(�(�(�($o+�.:�(�[~~~~~�([[���})� � � ~x[�[��(� ~�(� � :T&,�&�������9�<s�o���&
�(�)0�)�&RK.zxK.�&�&&K.['�~~� ~~~~~�(�(� ~~~�)~~~~��������������������������������������������������������������������K.~~~~~~~~~	!:	Determination of Aflatoxins, Ochratoxins and Zearlenone in animal feeds and Experiments for Decontamination of Aflatoxin B1

Salah Eldeen A. Ali1,2  Abdalla A.Elbashir*1

1University of Khartoum, Faculty of Science, Chemistry Department, Khartoum, 11115, Sudan, P.O box 321

2National Chemical Laboratories,  Federal Ministry of Health, Khartoum, Sudan.

Authors of correspondence
Dr. Abdalla A.Elbashir, e-mail:hajaae@yahoo.com,  HYPERLINK "mailto:aaelbashir@uofk.edu" aaelbashir@uofk.edu 
Abstract
In this work 75 samples of animal feed from three state (Khartoum, Kordofan and Gadarif) of Sudan were examined for aflatoxin B1, B2, G1, G2, (AFB1, AFB2, AFG1, AFG2) ochratoxins (OTA, OTB ) and zearalenone (ZEN) using high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) method with fluorescence detection. The limit of detections (LODs) and limit of quantifications (LOQs) were found to be in range between 0.01�0.6�ng�g"1 and 0.03 2.0�ng�g"1, respectively. The frequency of contaminated samples with AFB1 from Khartoum, Gadarif and Kordofan state was 45.5%, 33.2%, and 33.3%, respectively. Only one samples of animal feed from Khartoum state was found to be contaminated with AFG2 (3.03%). Concentrations of OTA, and OTB were low and may not cause problems.
The efficiency of decontamination of aflatoxin B1 AFB1 residues in animal feeds using different detoxification methods namely zeolite, activated charcoal, lumine juice and UV radiation were investigated. Zeolite and activated charcoal have been found to cause a significant decrease of AFB1. AFTB1 was decreased by 45.07, 41.12 when the feed was treated with zeolite, activated charcoal, respectively. 

Keywords : Mycotoxins, aflatoxins, animal feed, decontamination 
Introduction
Aflatoxins (AF), mainly produced by Aspergillus flavus and  A. parasiticus , are a group of naturally occurring fungal metabolites that have long been recognized as significant environmental contaminants. Aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) is the most frequent metabolite present in contaminated samples and it is listed as a group I carcinogen by the International Agency for Research on Cancer as it is the cause of human primary hepatocellular carcinoma [1].
Aflatoxins occur in many countries, especially in tropical and subtropical regions, and many agricultural commodities and important crops are susceptible to such contamination, especially peanuts and peanut-based foods [2]. Therefore, removal or inactivation in food and feed stuff already contaminated with toxic fungal metabolites is a major concern [3-5].

For reducing mycotoxin contamination of feeds and foods, several strategies have been investigated. These can be divided into biological, chemical and physical methods [6]. Ammoniation is the method that has received the most attention for detoxification of aflatoxin- or ochratoxin-contaminated feeds and has been used successfully in several countries. Other chemical treatments with hydrochloric acid, hydrogen peroxide, sodium hypochlorite, ascorbic acid and ammonium carbonate [7].
In our previous work [8], the presence of mycotoxins in sorghum and sorghum product from three states from Sudan were investigated. Some of the samples were found to contain AFB1 concentrations above the EU regulatory limits. Therefore the aim of this paper was to study the detoxification of AFB1 from animal feeds using, zeolite, activated charcoal, UV irradiation and lemon juice (citric acid). 
Material and Methods 
Samples
All the samples analyzed have been collected randomly from markets of three states in Sudan (Khartoum, Kordofan and Gadarif). The samples size was 0.5-1 kg. The samples were kept at freezer till tested. At the time of analysis samples were brought up to room temperature [9]. Extraction, clean up and determination of aflatoxins, ochratoxins and zearlenone was done using AOAC official method 990.33, 991.44 and 994.01 respectively with some modifications [10].
Chemicals
Methanol (CL chem. Lab) HPLC grade, n-hexane ( CARLO ERBA) RPE, hydrochloric acid, 37 % dichloromethane  were obtained from Scharlau, (Barcelona, Spain), sodium chloride (CARLO ERBA, MARSEILLE, France), acetone, benzene (AnalaR), acetonitrile HPLC grade, trifluroacetic acid (TFA), chloroform were purchased from (ROMIL, UK), phosphoric acid (AnalaR), and acetic acid were obtained from (Riedel-de Ha�n, Hannover, Germany), sodium sulphate anhydrous was purchased from Prabhat Chemicals, (Mumbai, India), citric acid, diethyl ether (Labtech Chemicals) were all profiled by El Walidien Trade and Investment Co. (Khartoum , Sudan). AFB1, AFB2, AFG1 and AFG2 were purchased from Immunolab GmbH (Kassel, Germany), OTA and OTB was purchased from Sigma�Aldrich Chemical GmbH (Germany), ZON was purchased from Supelco (USA), zeolite BDH (England) and Activated charcoal BDH (England).
Apparatus
HPLC system consisted of an LC 20AB pump, DGU 20A3 degasser unit, auto sampler (SIL-20A) and fluorescence detector (RF 10AXL) (Shimadzu, Kyoto, Japan). To measure the peak area software LC Solution Version 1.22 was used. Mechanical shaker Edmund Buhler 7400 Tubingen KS10 (Germany). UV Lamp UVL.56 BLAK RAY (CALIF, USA).
Analysis of Aflatoxins (AFB1; AFB2, AFG1, and AFG2) 
Extraction and Clean up
Animal feed (50g) was transferred to L blender jar, containing 200 ml methanol and 50 ml 0.1N hydrochloric acid and blended for 3 min at high speed. The solution was filtered through 24 cm Whatman No 1.  50 ml of the filtrate was transferred into 250 ml separation funnel; 50 ml of 10% sodium chloride solution was added and the solution was swirled.  50 ml hexane was added and the solution was shaken gently for 30s. The two phases were separated and lower layer was drained into 250 ml separation funnel and was extracted three times with 25 ml dichloromethane. The dichloromethane extracts was combined and concentrated to 2 ml, approximately. The concentrated extract was then carefully transferred into silica gel chromatography column and then 30 ml ether: hexane (3: 1) v (volume)/ v (volume) were added to wash the column. 2.0 ml of the chloroform extract was poured into the column and the beaker was washed with 0.5 ml chloroform, and thereafter 25 ml benzene: acetic acid (9: 1) v/ v was added and received into 250 ml beaker. Then 30 ml ether and, 100 ml of dichloromethane: acetone (90: 10) v/ v were added to the column to elute the aflatoxins and to evaporate the solvents. To derivatize the aflatoxins 200 �l hexane and 50 �l trifluroacetic acid (TFA) were added. The extract the mixture was shaken vigorously using vortex � Genie2 for 30 seconds and was left to stand for 5 minutes. Thereafter 1.95 ml acetonitrile: water 1: 9 (v/ v) was added and the mixture was shaken for 30 seconds and was left for 10 minutes to separate. The lower aqueous layer was collected by automatic pipette and used for HPLC analysis. Similarly derivation of a working standard mixture was done.
Separation and detection
The HPLC operating conditions were as follows
Column type and size: Supelcosil LC18; 150 x 4.6mm (id); 5 micron particle size.
Oven temperature: 40�C.
Fluorescent Detector: excitation 360 nm and emission 440 nm
Mobile phase: water: acetonitrile: methanol (700:170:170).
Flow rate: 1.0 ml min-1.
Injection volume (20 �L).
Analysis of Ochratoxins (OTA and OTB)
Extraction and cleanup
Animal feed (50g )  was transferred into 500 ml conical flask and 250 ml chloroform and 25 ml 0.1 M phosphoric acid were added. The flask was securely stoppered and was shaken on a wrist action shaker for 30 min. The solution was filtered through filter paper cover with diatomaceous earth. About 50 ml of the filtrate was mixed with 40 ml hexane and loaded into chromatography column containing mixture of 2.0 g diatomaceous earth and 1ml 1.25% sodium bicarbonate.  After that the OTA and OTB were removed with 75 ml acetic acid: chloroform (1:99) and was collected and evaporated to dryness in steam bath. The dry extract was dissolved in 500 �L mobile phase and was injected into HPLC.
Separation and detection
 The chromatographic conditions were as follows:
Column type and size: C18; 250 X 4.6 mm I.D.; 5 micron particle size
Temperature: ambient temperature 25�C
Fluorescence detector: excitation 333 and emission 460 nm 
Mobile phase:  acetonitrile :water :acetic acid (99: 99: 2)
Flow rate: 1 ml min-1
Injection Volume: 20 �L
Analysis of ZEN 
Animal feed (50 g ) was transferred into 500 ml conical flask with stopper. 25 g of diatomaceous earth and 20 ml water were added and the flask was rotated. 250 ml chloroform was added, and the flask was securely stoppered and was shaken on a wrist action shaker for 30 min and the solution was filtered through filter paper. 50 ml of the extract was transferred to 250 ml separation funnel then 10 ml saturated sodium chloride and 50 ml of 2% sodium hydroxide were added and shaked vigorously for 1.0 min. The layers were separated and the lower layer was discarded. 50 ml chloroform was added and the solution was shaken vigorously for 1 min, the layers were separated and the lower layer was discarded. 50 ml of citric acid solution (106 g in 1 L water) was added then the ZEN was extracted with 50 ml dichloromethane. The extract was dried with 40g of sodium sulphate anhydrous and was re-extracted with 50 ml of dichloromethane and the organic layer was drained through anhydrous sodium sulphate. The dry extract was dissolved with 500 �L mobile phase and was injected into HPLC.
Separation and detection
 The chromatographic conditions were as follows:
Column type and size: C18; 250 X 4.6 mm I.D.; 5 micron particle size
Temperature: ambient temperature 25�C
Fluorescence detector: excitation 236 nm and emission 418 nm 
Mobile phase:  methanol :acetonitrile :water (1.0: 1.6: 2.0)
Flow rate: 2 mL min-1
Injection Volume: 20 �L
Decontamination procedure for AFB1
Zeolite
0, 5, 10, 15, 20 and 25 g of zeolite were added to each 50g of animal feed samples and each was mixed well and was left to stand for one hour then the samples were analyzed for AFB1.
Activated charcoal
 0, 5,10,15,20 and 25 g of Activated charcoal were added to each 50g of animal feed samples. The samples were mixed well and were left for one hour; then the samples were analyzed for AFB1.
UV:
Each 50 g of animals feed samples were exposure to UV light for different time 0, 0.5, 1, 2, 3, and 4 hours. The samples were mixed well and analyzed for AFB1.
Citric Acid (lemon juice)
0, 2.5, 5 and 10g of lemon juice were added to each 50g of animal feed then mixed well and let them for hour. The samples were analyzed for AFB1. 
Result and discussion
Method performance
The calibration curves, using different concentrations, was generated by plotting mycotoxins peak areas against the corresponding concentrations of calibration samples All objectives for linearity validation have been matched: coefficient of correlation r�= in range from �0.991 to 0.998 was obtained for all of the analytes, indicating  good calibration curves.
The limit of detection (LOD) (signal-to-noise ratio�=�3) was calculated to be 0.017, 0.01, 0.017, 0.01, 0.13, 0.3 and 0.6 �ng/g  for AFB1, AFB2, AFG1, AFG2, OTA, OTB and ZEN; respectively. The limit of quantification (LOQ) (signal-to-noise ratio�=�10) was calculated to be 0.05, 0.03, 0.05, 0.03, 0.4, 0.9 and 2.0�ng/g of AFB1, AFB2, AFG1, AFG2, OTA, OTB and ZEN; respectively.
Recovery experiments were determined by spiking AFB1, AFB2, AFG1, AFG2, OTA, OTB and ZON at different level of concentrations. The average recoveries of the mycotoxins in range of 73 to 98 %, were obtained.
Occurrence of AFB1, AFB2, AFG1, AFG2, OTA, OTB and ZEN
The results for the concentration of various AFB1, AFB2, AFG1, AFG2, OTA, OTB and ZEN in animal feed samples from Khartoum, Gadarif and Kordfan states are summarized in table 1, 2 and 3, respectively. In general the mycotoxins were detected in groundnut cake and sunflower cake compared to sesame cake
The most frequently found mycotoxin was AFB1 followed by AFB2 and OCA then ZEN. This order of the AFB1and AFB2 is consistent with the results obtained for peanut and peanut products from Sudan [11]. An amount of 15 out of 33 (45.45%) of animal feed from Khartoum state were naturally contaminated by AFB1, and 7 out of 21 (33.3%) from Gadarif and Kordofan states. AFB2 was detected in 11 (33.3%), 4 (19.1%) and 7 (33.3%) samples from Khartoum, Gadarif and Kordofan states respectively. AFG1was detected in 2 (6.1%), 1 (4.8%) and 2 (9.5%) samples from Khartoum, Gadarif and Kordofan states respectively. AFG2 was detected in one sample (3.03%) from Khartoum state. Decontamination of AFB1 results with deferent procedure shown in table 4. The high percent of decreasing of AFB1 obtain in zeolite then activated charcoal and the less decrease obtain in lemon juice then uv light.
An earlier study carried out in Sudan showed that aflatoxin was present in 10-100% of groundnut samples with an average concentration of 8.37�0.61 �g kg-1[12]. Groundnut is known to be more susceptible to aflatoxin contamination [13].
Elzupir et al., [14] have studied the contamination of animal feed in Khartoum state by aflatoxins and ochratoxin A and he found that 66.67% of the samples analyzed were contaminated by aflatoxins at concentration ranged between 2.79 to 147.13ng/g while the ochratoxin A has detected in 77.78% of the sample analyzed at the range of 0.22-1.59 ng/g. The different values obtained in different studies may be due to differences in the techniques used and origins of samples analyzed.
Salah et al., [15] have studied the contamination of animal feed with aflatoxins and he found that 60% of the sample analyzed contaminated with aflatoxins and the types of aflatoxins found in the samples are AFB1 and AFB2. 
Conclusion
The results obtained in the present investigation have shown that mycotoxins contamination in the animal feed samples is alarmingly high. This is evidently posing a dangerous problem to the poultry and livestock industry as well as to human health; a wide range of harmful effects and chronic toxicity in Sudanese animals can be easily overlooked. Zeolite and activated charcoal have been found to cause a significant decrease of AFB1.

References
1. IARC. (2002). IARC monographs on the evaluation of carcinogenic risks to human.
2. Sashidhar RB (1993) Fate of aflatoxin B1 during the industrial production of edible defatted peanut protein Xour from raw peanuts.Food Chem 48(4):349�352.

3. Rustom IYS (1997) AXatoxin in food and feed: occurrence, legislation and inactivation by physical methods. Food Chem 59:57�67.

4. Kabak B, Dobson ADW, Var I (2006) Strategies to prevent mycotoxin contamination of food and animal feed: a review.Food Sci Nut 46(8):593�619.
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