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��ࡱ�>��	�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������[�	��R�bjbj����	7�ΐΐey����������!�!�!�!�!�����!�!�!�!��#4�!}K�#:�#�#�#�#�$�$�$xJzJzJzJzJzJzJ$�N�/QD�J��!�$�$�$�$�$�J�!�!�#�#�7KN-N-N-�$��!�#�!�#xJN-�$xJN-N-��@�hB�#����`D&k�z��!�*�dAdJMK0}KzA�sQX+�sQ,hBhBsQ�!|B��$�$N-�$�$�$�$�$�J�JN-�$�$�$}K�$�$�$�$��������������������������������������������������������������������sQ�$�$�$�$�$�$�$�$�$�	� :	The house sparrow (Passer domesticus) population decline and role of semi nomadic pastoralist community (Van Gujjars) in conservation.
Authors: Aatif Hussain1, Sabyasachi DASGUPTA1, H.S. BARGALI2.
Author Affiliations: 1 Department of Forestry & NR, HNB Garhwal University, Srinagar (Garhwal), Uttarakhand, India, 2Deputy Director, The Corbett Foundation, Ramnagar, Uttarakhand
Abstract: The house sparrow, Passer domesticus (Linnaeus, 1758) is closely associated with human habitations and cultivation from historic times. The house sparrow is distributed all over India up to 4000m in the Himalayas. Distribution of House sparrow is not uniform in the country, and in the recent years disappearing of sparrows is also reported from various parts of the world including India. But reliable information on sparrow populations is not available. Less work has been carried out actually for counting and keeping a record of the sparrows. This article summarizes the possible decline in its population through literature review in many parts of the world including India. This article also summarized the possible cause and threats for the decline in population. This article examines the role of semi nomadic pastoralist community for the conservation and the potential effect of relocation of Van Gujjar community on the population of house sparrow. We also tried to suggest the various activities for resolving the issues related with conservation of house sparrow.
Key words: Van Gujjar, Relocation, Settlements, House Sparrow, Conservation.

Introduction
In India there are more than 1200 bird species which is over 13 percent of the world�s bird species. India is the third among the countries having the largest number of rare and threatened species followed by Brazil and Indonesia. Habitat loss is the greatest threat for birds in India [34]. House sparrow (Passer domesticus) is one of the most wide spread and abundant birds in the world [2]. A marked decline of house sparrow population has been reported all over the globe. The evolution of house sparrows has been fairly recent than humans (Homo sapiens) dating back to about 25,000 to 15,000 years ago [3]. Perhaps, the transformation of human social organisation influenced and is influencing the distribution of this species in many ways. 
The house sparrow, locally known as �Choria� is closely associated with human habitations and cultivation from historic times [10]. House sparrows are monogamous and long term pair bond is maintained throughout and between breeding seasons. The species breed in small colonies or in loose groups. It is omnivorous and feeds on grains, fruit buds, flower nectar, weed seeds, insects and kitchen scrap, though chicks are fed with aphids, weevils, grasshoppers, and caterpillars [13]. Aphids are essential for nestling survival. The nest is built in holes of structures, under the tiles or around roof area of houses. Sparrows are relatively sedentary birds and don�t travel more than a kilometer or two in search of food. They are found in human-altered habitat, like farm areas. Not found in dense forest and desert environment. In India, house sparrow survive in all temperatures from the humid coastal regions to the hot plains to the chills of Kashmir and beyond to Ladakh, up to 15,000 feet above sea level.
The scientific classification and general features of house sparrows are as follows:
Class:�Aves	Order:�Passeriformes		Family:�Passeridae Species:�Passer domesticus 
Length:�10-20 cm			Weight:�24-39.5 grams	Lifespan:�4-5 years	
		The study was conducted to understand the decline of the house sparrow population around the globe and role of Van Gujjars for the conservation of house sparrow. The Van Gujjars ("Van" meaning "forest" in Hindi) are semi-nomadic pastoralists that live in the lower sub-Himalayan parts of Uttarakhand State. They are one of the most important migratory tribes of the Himalayas. The men wear a turban, a lose tahmet (sarong) and generally have a flowing beard. Some wear embroidered waistcoats. The women wear a long kurta (shirt), churidar (tight pyjamas), and jackets. The women do not generally veil themselves. They speak Gujjari or Gojri, a dialect of Hindi. Many speak Urdu, Kashmiri, Garhwali, Pahari or Dogri as well. Milk and cornmeal are their staple food, and are strict vegetarians. The Van Gujjars live and move in joint family groups and set up temporary settlements where the grazing is good. Men graze the animals and sell the milk and the women milk the cattle, make butter and do the other household chores.
Methods and Materials:
The research was conducted with a sample of 340 households from February- June in 2012. Van Gujjars formed the population of the study. The interviewed Van Gujjars were located inside and adjacent forest divisions of Corbett Tiger Reserve (CTR). The CTR is situated at the foothills of the Western Himalayas in the civil district of Nanital and Pauri Garhwal in Uttarakhand, India. For the data collection three methods were employed namely surveys, open ended interviews and review of published literature. These methods were employed for the collection of primary and secondary information relate with house sparrow. The details of data collection and compilation are described herewith. 
Secondary data collection:
An extensive review of the available literatures was carried out by visiting different government departments, academic institutions and various libraries. The secondary information was also collected by reviewing the literature carried out or supervised by professional ecologists and supported by recognized public or private research funding bodies, in relation to the accepted decline and its causes in the house sparrow population.
Primary data collection:
Primary data were collected through semi-structured questionnaire survey and interviewing respondents of Van Gujjars in various settlements. The data was collected during the study of Van Gujjars conservation perceptions towards relocation in which questions related with house sparrow were also formatted for data collection. The primary data were collected from the Van Gujjars and key informants. The collections of primary data were obtained through informal, open ended interviews, focused group discussions, meetings and site level observations that were related with house sparrow population.
Study area	 
The study was conducted in Van Gujjar settlements (Khatta�s) located in and around the Corbett Tiger Reserve (CTR), Uttarakhand India. The CTR is situated at the foothills of the Western Himalayas in the civil district of Nanital and Pauri Garhwal in Uttarakhand, India. The CTR area extends from 78� 39� 40� E to 79� 09� 23� E longitude and 29�48� N to 29�23� 32� N latitude. The area of the CTR is 1288.32 km2. The altitude of CTR ranges between 385 to 1100 m asl. The park receives about 1500 mm to 1600 mm of rainfall mainly during the monsoon though some winter rain always occurs. The temperature ranges between 4�C in winter to 42�C during the summer season. Most of the Park lies in the Outer- Himalayan or Shiwalik region. The park represents the amalgamation of culture of these hill regions, and displays amazing landscapes and diverse flora and fauna. 

Result and discussion
Role of Van Gujjars in house sparrow conservation
A total of 340 households were visited in 37 settlements falling within four districts, namely Pauri, Nainital and Udhamsingh Nagar in Uttarakhand state, and Bijnor in Uttar Pradesh state, India. Most of the settlements were small, only seven settlements having 15 or more households. The total population of all settlements was 2464 persons. Household size ranged from 2 to 18 persons. The average household member size was 7.24 persons. The literacy rate and employment was very low. According to Gooch [22], Van Gujjars may be regarded as more of an exception than as a rule among pastoralists of the world, as they rely almost entirely on their herds for their livelihood. The main source of livelihood is rather homogeneous (pastoralism) within each settlement; individual families are dependent on a great variety of different occupations for their livelihood (agriculture and daily wage labouring).  They were reluctant to abandon this traditional way of living, as they are cut off from most mainstream activities. Livestock was an integral part of the household, which has been primary source of economy. Total number of Adult Cattle Unit (ACU) in settlements was 7574 individuals and average number of ACU per household was 23.21�9.48. 
The members stay in traditional huts, which are locally known as deras, which were built from the forest material on a clearing in the forest and soil material. About 98% respondents were living in thatched roof with mud wall house. The khatta (settlements) when viewed from some distance looks very pretty and pleasant. The style of architecture and construction of this kind requires a lot of timber and grass (plate 1-fig.1 & 2). The total constructions were 1161 in which 753 (64.85%) were thatched roof with mud wall houses, followed by 380 cattle sheds (32.73%), 19 thatched huts (1.63%) and others. The traditional mud architecture of houses with thatched roof provides the site for letting the house sparrows breed in them. There is no lack of nesting sites in these houses (plate 1-fig.3). There is greater availability of granivorous and insectivorous food and straw for nesting inside and outside deras, which influences the house sparrow population. In despite of cities and towns, the new buildings and landscaped gardens which are being constructed are not at all sparrow friendly. This scenario was supported by Crick & Siriwardena [14] that urban declines are continuing because generically low insect availability prevents density dependent improvement in breeding output. Moss [30], also supported the statement by suggesting that modern buildings may contain fewer nest sites for birds that those in old buildings. From the observation of some deras, there was average of 2-3 nests of house sparrow in each deras (plate 1-fig. 4). 
During the interviews and discussion with Van Gujjars (plate 1-fig. 6), members of The Corbett foundation (NGO), and some forest department officials, it was observed that Van Gujjars play a major role for the conservation of house sparrow,�as they are traditionally associated with their habitation. Movements of large number of flocks of house sparrows were observed near their deras (house) and settlements (villages). During the interview with the respondents, it was revealed that population of house sparrows were more likely to be less in their adjacent villages and nearby towns than their settlements. It was suggested by respondents that the most obvious reason for less population in their adjacent villages is due to destruction of house sparrow habitat and disappearance of their nesting places with urbanization. It was well supported in the studies of Clergeau et al. [12] & White et al. [47], whose results portray that due to urbanization, the population of house sparrow has drastically declined. 
Van Gujjar communities followed the traditional way of living. It has been revealed from the respondents that changing lifestyles of people in the nearby villages and town areas seem to be more conducive to the house sparrow survival. The lifestyle changes in cities and towns, purchasing food grains (in sealed packs) and vegetables in extreme hygiene environments and their efficient disposal will have resulted in reduced availability of food around the household for house sparrows. A similar condition was supported by De. Laet and Summers-Smith, [16], that decline in house sparrow population due to improved hygiene measures around grain stores.  In case of Van Gujjars, there were certain aspects such as their dwelling, eating and buying habitats of life, unhygienic condition around grain stores and land use (few settlements) that promotes the availability of shelter and food for the house sparrow. The women�s of Van Gujjars often sits longer outside their deras to clean grain or offer grain or�chapatti, which is a daily routine and major source of food for sparrows. Similarly, Crick et al., [13], concluded that an extreme hygiene and changing lifestyles has resulted in lack of availability of food by way of leftovers, grains, etc. to the house sparrows. People in the cities and towns are also becoming increasingly intolerant towards house sparrow because they do not like nesting in their homes and dropping nesting material inside.
Van Gujjars have a major influence on house sparrow population as they belong to the low socio-economic status (plate 1-fig. 5). The Van Gujjars settlements are situated mostly inside the forests with lot of vegetation, livestock / cowsheds in and around deras. These factors can be explained by greater prevalence of native shrubs supporting higher densities of insects for house sparrows. Similarly, Robinson et al. [37] stated that variations in population trends also occurred among urban sparrows, with the most severe declines in areas of high socio-economic status, but relative stability in low income areas. Other studies also linked decline of house sparrows to areas with high socio economic status [46].
Recent scenario of decline in house sparrow population
A small plump brownish bird, which is a widely distributed species in most parts of Europe and Asia, is slowly disappearing from urban areas [25]. Throughout history house sparrows have been regarded as pest species damaging standing crops, transmitting diseases and negatively affecting native avifauna after voluntary human [2]. However, nowadays it is widely acknowledged that this species has suffered major declines, shifting its �pest status� to a �near threatened� one [8]. In the rural area the decline has stabilized whereas the urban decline has been more dramatic and seems to be still in progress, transforming (some parts of) city centres into �sparrow free� areas [16]. But the primary causes of this decline have not yet been ascertained. However, a marked decline of sparrow population has been reported from different countries over the globe particularly in urban habitats including Berlin [17], Brussels [5], Spain and Dublin [33] and Western Europe [13]. The house sparrow is already red listed in the Netherlands, where it has a decline over 50% of its total population in the last 25 years of the 20th century. In UK, a massive decrease in the house sparrow population [13; 27; 36] has led to almost complete extinction in some urban centers like London, where there was a 71% decline from 1994 to 2002 [36]. In 2002, the house sparrow was added to the Red List of U.K. endangered species [45]. High reduction of sparrow population in London (60%), Glasgow (99%) and Hamburg (77%) have leaded to the inclusion on the UK Conservation Red List [33; 34; 42]. 
The survey reports on the occurrences of house sparrow at different places have shown a considerable decline in its population along urban gradient [7; 15; 20; 28; 35]. Moreover, dwindling of sparrow populations along urban gradient is getting more into focus in different parts of the world including India [7; 15; 20; 23; 28; 35].  According to Bombay Natural History society (BNHS) the population of sparrow have indeed declined and low number of nests. A survey organised by the Bombay Natural History Society (BNHS) along with the Central Ministry of Environment and Forests indicate that the Hyderabad-Ranga Reddy zone saw a steep drop in the number of house sparrows from 2005 onwards. From 21.86%, it dropped to a meager 5.03%, during this period. According to Girish, C. et al., [21] house sparrows were found in localities that have livestock / cowsheds and in and around neighbourhoods of dense and low-income housing and urban villages than that of middle or high income housing with �well-planned� (or at least geometrically well-laid). A sharp decline in the sparrow population has been observed by ornithologists across Mumbai, Bangalore, Hyderabad and other cities. 
Possible causes and threats for decline in house sparrow population
Several studies carried on house sparrow have cited varied reasons for their decline [45]. According to Bergtold [6], the early phase of the decline is likely to be linked to the gradual replacement of horse-drawn transport by automobiles. However, Baker et al. [4] & Shaw [40], stated that any population under stress, when affected by detrimental factors in the environment, would badly affect the populations to cause local extinctions and this would have lead to the large scale decline of the house sparrow. Some studies have demonstrated a number of relationships between density of house sparrows and human population density [44], conditions of buildings and hence availability of nest-sites [26], food supply [43], and amount of vegetation (green space) on breeding grounds [26]. The consensus emerging from these studies on the cause of urban sparrow declines was summarised by Shaw et al. [41], who reasoned that variation in the development and maintenance of urban landscapes explains the evidence that sparrows have declined less in areas with lower socio-economic status. He also argued that stability of sparrow populations in low status districts of cities can be explained by greater prevalence of native shrubs supporting higher densities of insects. Fuller et al. [19] stated that decline in population is due to changes are related to the increasing intensification of agriculture, can be attributed to a decrease in resource availability, primarily weed seeds and cereal grain. According to Green, [24], cereal, and other crop, seeds are increasingly sown with seed-dressings, which is likely to decrease the palatability of the seed to birds. Robinson et al. [37] revealed that populations have declined by about 60% in urban and suburban since the mid 1970�s due to the drastic alterations to the quality and composition of the urban landscapes. Dr�scher [17] reported that the House Sparrow had become a rarity in West Berlin, but remained relatively common in East Berlin, which might reflect a general lack of development under the former communist regime. Several studies have shown that the availability of insectivorous food for nestlings during the breeding season influences the breeding success of the sparrows [32]. Achten et al. [1] reported that the increased use of unleaded petrol is thought to have coincided with the major period of decline in house sparrow populations. Similarly, Moss [30], reported that this fuel contains volatile organic compounds as lead substitutes, particularly benzene and methyl, tert-butyl ether (MTBE) that might affect the number of aphids which house sparrows feed to their chicks in the first few days after hatching. 
The other potential factors that could have led to the declines of house sparrows include predation by domestic cats [11], Sparrow hawks [38], loss of nest sites possibly due to house renovation [30], declines in invertebrate food for chicks [9], declines in food for parents in summer or winter [18], air quality [29], improved hygiene measures around grain stores [16], Lack of availability of food by way of insects (prey), grains and other leftovers [13], rise of automobiles [42] and disease transmission [31].

Conclusion:
In recent decade in India, populations of house sparrows have seen a dramatic decline. It is difficult to comment about the actual population decline in India, due to non-availability of any historical data.  There is a lack of area- wise data on common birds especially house sparrow. There are no or less figures to map the distribution of decline and understanding its cause. For the conservation and to fight the decline in population, Ministry of Environment and Forests, Indian Council of Agricultural Research and various NGOs, The Bird Life International, Royal Society for the Protection of Birds (RSPB), Bombay Natural History Society (BNHS), and the Sparrow Club are working. In India over the last few years several campaigns, outreach and awareness programmes, research surveys have been carried out to understand the decline of a species, but little work has been done for its conservation.  Many countries have had bird monitoring programs since a long time and acts as early warning system for bird decline. Perhaps if there had been a common bird monitoring system in India earlier than its formation, the decline in population of house sparrow had come to notice in the earlier stages. In India, there remains a huge amount to be discovered about sparrows as we know relatively little about house sparrows in the urban and suburban environment. There is an urgent need to undertake a number of studies, surveys to establish baseline figures, bird habitat relations and identify future actions to reverse declines. There is a bigger need of targeted studies to identify the relative importance of potential key mortality factors including predation; food availability in urban and suburban habitats; building architecture, air quality; pollution; disease transmission etc.
There is no doubt that human civilization has had a negative impact on biodiversity, but in case of house sparrow, they are adapted and thrive in the close proximity to humans. Similarly, the house sparrows are traditionally associated with Van Gujjars.  Van Gujjars feel pride for house sparrows presence within their settlements. They are aware that their dwellings provide a sheltered habitat which enhances and encourages the survival of house sparrow population by providing access of favourable and flexible ecosystem. But the relocation of Van Gujjars has clearly emerged as an important issue in conservation of protected areas in Uttarakhand. If in case of Van Gujjar�s of the study area are relocated in the near future, there are chances of changes in their life style and architecture of houses, which will be supplemented with better facilities as found in Rajaji National Park, Uttarakhand, India [39]. The modern architecture of houses at the relocated site will lead to drastic decline in the nesting sites and food shortage for the house sparrow as compared to current site with mud architecture houses. If in case of old dwellings will be left as such for nesting site for house sparrow, there will be deplete in the food resource which will ultimately lead to stress and will disappear with their ecological niche. In the future any relocation programme in the CTR area may ensure the long-term wildlife survival in this part of globe and can fulfill the issue of conservation of biological diversity. But in case of house sparrow, relocation of Van Gujjars will disrupt the ecological makeup and will affect house sparrow and similar organism�s habitat nearby the protected area. So, we need to start taking the issue tad more seriously and adopt a systematic method to address the decline of population through resolving the various issue of conservation.
Aknowledgement
We are highly grateful to The Corbett Foundation, Dhikuli Ramnagar, Nainital, Uttarakhand, India for providing necessary facilities and funds. Thanks are due to staff members of �The Corbett Foundation� for helping us during the field work. Sincere thanks are also due to the Forest Department officials for their kind support and co� operation. We are also thankfu1 to the Van Gujjars of the study area for their co�operation during the data collection.
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J.G. White, M.J. Antos, J.A. Fitzsimons, G.C. Palmer, Non uniform bird assemblages in urban environments: the ����W�����8�v�����Q�R�����������
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