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INTRODUCTION
In today�s world, firms are judged on their business ethics, social accountability and socio-economic awareness as well as financial outcomes (Lee et al., 2010). Even the concept of marketing has expanded from that of simple selling or transaction seeking to societal marketing whereby organizations endeavour to become responsible and accountable to the society (Fyall and Garrod, 2005). Natural areas are no exception since the modern day tourist is said to be environmentally conscious, seeking more for and from green establishments and destinations. With this in mind, �green� accommodation images have become a powerful operational tool in attracting and retaining more guests as well as achieving cost reduction measures from the use of renewable energy and water. Accordingly, in 2002, eco-rating scheme was introduced in Kenya with the view of promoting the sustainability of natural areas.

Before hand, in the 1990s, in the quest to be more accountable to the society, the Kenyan tourism industry greatly advocated for establishment of Community Based Tourism Initiatives (CBTIs) whose aim was to enhance the conservation agenda (Manyara and Jones, 2007). Five decades after the first national park was gazetted in Kenya in 1946, the Kenya Wildlife Service (KWS) management came up with the concept of �parks beyond parks� in 1996 with the call to develop partnership with the local communities in wildlife management (Honey, 2008). This resulted in the formal creation of the first community owned wildlife sanctuary in Kenya � Kimana Group Ranch (Wishitemi and Okello, 2003) which re-affirmed that people and parks can no longer be separated. However, nothing much seems to have changed given the poverty levels around protected areas. For instance, according to WRI et al. (2007) on average 50% of the people living within a 25 Km radius of the most visited parks in Kenya are poor. KIPPRA (2009) on their part admit that community benefits from Maasai Mara and Amboseli conservation areas (most visited protected areas in Kenya) are less than 1%. 

With this in mind, Cater (1994) and Wheller (1997) rightfully argued that issues raised by critics of ecotourism remain unanswered and that the basic problems and dilemma witnessed in ecotourism and conservation areas are very much still present. This paper echoes the same sentiments by interrogating in depth, first the eco-rating initiatives in Kenya and secondly the general concept of ecotourism development at destination levels. What are the gaps inherent in such initiatives? 

LINKING TOURISM TO CONSERVATION
Honey (2008) acknowledges that Kenya has been a trailblazer in ecotourism. She further points out that the first director of KWS � an institution overseeing the management of all national parks in Kenya � was the first head of The International Ecotourism Society (TIES) in the United States of America. Further, Ecotourism Kenya (formerly, Ecotourism Society of Kenya) was the first non-governmental ecotourism body to be formed in Africa. This shows that the public sector is not alone in ensuring that the Kenyan destination is competitive but rather has a partner in the private sector. For instance, KATA (Kenya Association of Travel Agents) identifies itself with five brand pillars: Trust, The best value for money, Consumer advocate, Convenience, Personalized service, and Quality service. The Kenya Association of Hotel Keepers and Caterers (KAHC) has the motto of �Making Kenya�s hospitality globally competitive� while the African Conservation Centre � a local conservation NGO � aims at �integrating knowledge, environment and livelihood�. 

As evidenced by Ecotourism Kenya (EK), the private sectors� role in driving competitiveness in the tourism sector with regard to green operations cannot be overemphasized. Over the past five decades, certain protected areas in Kenya have seen their natural wealth exploited without due regard to ecological processes. A case in point is the Maasai Mara ecosystem where there are 108 tourist establishments with a total of 4,000 tourist beds. However, it has been noted that majority (71%) of these establishments function illegally without official authorization. Other 92 establishments (85%) did not even carry out environmental audit prior to their being set up, while 98 (91%) function without a physical plan (Daily Nation, 2010). This haphazard development transforms natural environments into victims of tourism development. Consequently, the target to sustainable ecotourism becomes elusive (Cater, 1994) mainly because the environment is still externalized and treated as a free good (Fennell, 2006). It was for these reasons that EK was established in 1996 as a follow-up to the first ever national ecotourism workshop held in Nakuru, Kenya in 1992. The aim was to form a lobby group that would promote good practices in the tourism industry. This was necessary since as urged by Plog (1994) and cited in Boniface (2001, p. 6) �to protect the world for tourism, and protect the world from tourism, a common set of goals, evolving into specific plans for different regions, is desperately needed�. 

One such goal undertaken by EK was the initiation of the eco-rating scheme. This is a certification process whereby third party assessment is undertaken, written assurance is given that the product, process, service or management system conforms to the standard (Sallows and Font, 2004). Such programs are characterized by membership fees (table 1), a logo or a brand (fig. 1), voluntary enrolment, auditing or other forms of assessment (table 2), and compliance to the regulations that are built into the program (Fennell, 2006; Sallows and Font, 2004). This institutional dimension helps certified organizations to maintain their legitimacy while conforming to established standards (see also Muriithi, 2014). Initially, this process targeted the accommodation sector in Kenya, after which it was generalized to other countries within the East African region as from 2008.   

Table 1: Eco-rating certification fee
Figure 1: Eco-rating certification emblems

According to EK, the aim of the scheme is three fold. First it is to promote and increase awareness of environmentally and socially sound business practices. This includes determining the appropriateness of the sources of energy, water and their usage efficiency; pollution control and waste management. Secondly it aims at conserving the natural resource base on which tourism depends; and lastly it aims at improving the overall standards of the tourism industry (table 2). The socio-cultural and socio-economic criteria, equity, fairness and community development are addressed. Thus, according to Fennell (2006, p. 215), �what makes these accreditation programmes ethical is their focus on trying to bring about sustainable tourism through the regulations that they hold to be true�. 

Table 2: Considered parameters in the evaluation criteria in Kenya

The objective of the eco-labels is to uphold responsible tourism practices through the promotion of environmental, social and economic values. Certification by EK is done on a purely voluntary basis where hotels, game lodges and tented camps take part. The eco-rating scheme has three levels of certification: Bronze, Silver and Gold in ascending order. Each one of these levels defines conditions for qualification. Gold eco-rating which has been awarded to 10 establishments is an indicator that a facility has achieved superior and replicable levels of excellence in responsible resource use, environmental conservation and socio-economic investment. Silver eco-rating, which has 58 establishments, demonstrates a move towards excellence; awarded to facilities that show innovation in responsible resource use, environmental conservation and socio-economic investment. This category is the entry level and demonstrates a facility�s awareness and commitment to environmental conservation, responsible resource use and socio-economic investment. The last category is that of Bronze eco-rating which currently has 32 establishments. It is worth noting that among the Gold rated establishments is Turtle Bay Beach Club in Watamu (145 rooms with a bed capacity of 300) that describes itself as �Kenya�s number one all-inclusive resort� ( HYPERLINK "http://www.turtlebay.co.ke" www.turtlebay.co.ke). Of the total rated facilities, 44 i.e. 44% of them are located in Maasai Mara and its environs. What remains to be seen is the impact of such measures with regard to customers� decision making.

TOWARDS A BROADER CONCEPTUALIZATION OF ECOTOURISM
One of the tenets of ecotourism is that it is supposed to be locally oriented and small scale (Fennell, 1999). However, with time there has been a tendency to adopt a more liberal outlook with regard to ecotourism. For instance Weaver (2003) prefers to think of it as �mass ecotourism� saying that it can only be beneficial if it is brought to the masses. On its part, EK seems to lean towards ensuring that the very concept of ecotourism is adopted by a bigger number of actors and facilities. It considers the conceptualization of ecotourism in the strictest sense of the word to be restrictive. For this reason, it carried out the eco-certification of tourist enclaves notably Turtle Bay Beach Resort of 145 rooms in the coastal town of Watamu (Gold rating); Baobab Beach Resort and Spa in Diani Beach (Silver rating), Serena Beach hotel and spa of 164 rooms in Shanzu area (Silver rating), and that of Lake Nakuru lodge within the lake Nakuru National Park (Bronze rating) among others. 

It is however not lost that EK thinks of ecotourism as bringing together conservation, communities and tourism. However, just like the case of helicopter ecotourism in Hollywood (Fennell, 1999), it is not easy to notice linkages between some of the eco-rated establishments and the local communities in the areas in which they operate. Is this a case where a good idea like eco-certification is adopted but deployed superficially and then subsequently ruined by altering its use? Indeed, Fennell (1999, p. 272) posits ; �let the large mega resorts and mass tourism become sustainable tourism, not ecotourism�. This implies that such facilities like Turtle Bay practice sustainable mass tourism rather than ecotourism in the strict sense of the word. 

It is therefore apparent that the concept of ecotourism is still undergoing a metamorphosis. Over time, it has been applied indiscriminately to anything that establishes a link between tourism and nature (Fennell, 1999) � the case of safari based tourism in Kenyan parks. For some it is a philosophy, a frame of mind, a process rather than a type of tourism. Indeed, EK affirms that �ecotourism is not a type of tourism like other types of tourism e.g. adventure, beach, culture-based, wildlife, sports, scenic, specialized etc; it is not a comparison or alternative to mass tourism; and it is not an exclusive way of doing tourism�. It notes that Ecotourism is �a tourism business approach or strategy for achieving the goals of sustainable development. Hence ecotourism principles are applicable to all types of tourism and tourism products�. 

Thus, what was once seen as alternative and minority has come to be the mainstream in today�s tourism. Such sentiments by EK seem to have been shard by some scholars who think of ecotourism as having expanded into urban areas yet it is generally agreed that ecotourism takes place in �relatively undisturbed natural areas�� � an antonym of urban areas. This they term it as �urban ecotourism� (Wu, Wang and Ho, 2010) � a conceptual oxymoron? Still, with EK, the concept has been stretched to the beaches with 13 beach establishments having been certified as meeting the eco-rating criteria. This means that new ideas like ecotourism are now beginning to be used in old settings like the beach (beach ecotourism?) 

It is worth noting that this paper does not make value judgments as to whether such enterprises are meeting the standards for ecotourism or not. As Honey (2008, p. 113) rightfully puts it �ecotourism is going to move from a good concept to good practices�. If this is the intention of EK, then it presents an opportunity to stretch the concept of ecotourism further into non traditional areas and settings. Nevertheless, at least it is appreciated that establishments, especially those on the Kenyan coast, do not really portray the ecotourism image, largely due to their location � the beach. Being all-inclusive and enclaves, they tend to minimize contacts between their clientele and the local populations. Honey (2008) observes that mass tourism resorts have been using the �eco� label, some with little or no substance. However, eco-labels are seen as the best method to communicate to tourists about environmental issues (Sallows and Font, 2004). For EK, the aim is to �recognize best practices in environmental conservation, responsible resource use and socio-economic investment among tourism accommodation facilities�. The negative ecological footprint of tourism justified the awarding of labels by EK without discrimination to make the industry sustainable, responsible and competitive.  

Ecotourism in the context of sustainability 
Moreover, one noticeable issue has been the small number of tourists paying for the eco-labeled products due to premium pricing (Fennell, 2006). Sallows and Font (2004, p. 98) note that �eco-labels are meaningless in the majority of the cases and tourists perceive that certified products are more expensive� [and] are not widely recognized or understood by the average tourist�. Thus, while certification can be seen as a beneficial tool if properly implemented, by 2010, there were only 50 eco-rated establishments in Kenya. This number rose by 100% to reach at 100 establishments under this scheme by the year 2012 � thanks to the aggressive nature of the EK CEO at the time.

On a national scale, there are over 10.5 Million hotel rooms available in Kenya as at 2011 (GoK, 2012). Assuming that there is an average of 100 rooms per eco-rated facility (some have less than 20 rooms), this translates to less than 0.1% of the total accommodation sector in Kenya. Even on the international scale, Sallows and Font (2004) note that less than 1% of all tourism operations are involved in some form of certification. Nevertheless, such small number of eco-rated facilities can hardly make an impact at a macro level since the eco-certification process has not been widely generalized. For instance, in Nairobi area, there is only one facility having 23 rooms that has been eco-rated. Further research should be done to ascertain the real benefits of eco-rated facilities from the business perspective and its accrued advantages to the service providers. Have such facilities managed to create clear brand recognition in order to divert customer attention from the rival option of non eco-rated facilities? 

Still, it is noted that the aims of eco-certification is to promote and increase awareness of environmentally and socially sound practices; to promote the increased contribution of tourism to socio-cultural development; to promote the increased contribution of tourism to conservation of natural resources upon which tourism is dependent and to improve destination image, thus potentially attracting more businesses. With only 100 eco-rated establishments and 440 members since inception the aim of certification by EK seem not to have been taken seriously by the industry. Thus, while the process of certification in Kenya shows dynamism and a transformation in general, little seems to have changed. The contemporary issue has been to attract the masses, to lodge them and to take them round with little being done towards ensuring environmental integrity. The environmental problems documented in the 1970s continue to date. The good intentions are rarely translated into good practices. The motives of different establishments being involved in the certification process are not also clear (Fennell, 2006). Additionally, as noted by Sallows and Font (2004), certification can increase inequalities by promoting only those who have the capacity to fulfil assessment requirements (table 1). This is true in the Kenyan situation since few, if any, truly or real community based and owned projects (for instance the Kakamega community bandas) are certified by EK.

LINKING TOURISM TO COMMUNITIES: KAKAMEGA FOREST BANDAS 
In 2003, as one of its major milestones, EK initiated the Isecheno Banda Project. This project is situated in an under-exploited tourism destination of Kakamega Forest Reserve despite its description as �the canopy of natural beauty� (Kihima, 2010). This forest measuring 240 Km� is the only remnant of a rain forest in Kenya offering a great but unrealised tourism potential (Okello, Wishitemi and Mwinzi, 2001) including but not limited to bird and primate-watching, butterfly watching and education (research) . 

Despite such good noble ideas geared towards fulfilling the mission of EK of effectively �linking tourism, communities and conservation for sustainable development in Kenya�, it is observed that in most cases, destination areas are vast with only one or a few entrances to the natural area. This makes tourism to impact only on a few people around the natural resource base. The implication here is that there is no intimate connection between the reserve and the surrounding community hence no or little benefit to the local people. Around this forest there are 35,000 homes. Each residence has an average of 4.8 people (GoK, 2007). This therefore translates into approximately 140,000 people yet tourism activity is restricted to the villages close to main entrance of Isecheno in the South and Buyangu in the North (Kihima, 2014). This disfranchises most members of the community in destination areas in as far as tourism benefits are concerned. As a result, there is a considerable variation between those who suffer negative effects (82%) and those benefiting from the economic advantages (28%) accruing from forest tourism (Kihima, 2010). This presents therefore a challenge of linking communities, tourism and conservation. 

Thus as much as ecotourism is ecologically based, it proves difficult to ensure a close relationship between the natural environment, the tourists and the local communities especially if the conservation area is vast in size. In essence tourism revenue from wildlife is limited to small portions of protected areas. Consequently the challenge lies in increasing the benefits of tourism beyond the vicinity of the park entrance areas (Kihima, 2014). Indeed, while the negative impacts attributed to the natural environments (the damage caused by wild animals, denial of accessibility, congestion) are localized or experienced at a local level, the positive impacts (the economic benefits and job creation) are globalised or nationalized. Therefore, the conflicts around the zones biodiversity persist because these spaces maintain an international, national and local image often disconnected from local development (Kihima, 2010).

In addition, the emphasis on small groups in ecotourism definition makes it even unviable to support local communities. For instance there are only 6 Isecheno Bandas with a bed capacity of 18. Compounded by the few numbers of visitors (table 3) and benefit sharing at a community level, Manyara and Jones (2007) are of the view that CBOs have little impact with regard to poverty reduction. Solving one problem by encouraging small scale projects and low visitor numbers, may create another problem of low economic benefits for the local communities. Certainly fewer tourists in destination areas are not synonymous with ecotourism neither is ecotourism restricted to low numbers. 
	
Table 3: The number of visitors recorded in the community bandas of Kakamega in 2007

Indeed, the main challenge is not the setting up of community projects but rather it is their viability in the long run and the integration of such projects in the mainstream tourism industry. It is evident that there is no tourism without the tourist. This therefore implies that such initiatives must be alive to the benefits gained from tourist information by communicating to potential customers (Gunn, 1994). Boniface (2001, p. 39) recommends that �as providers and consumers, we need to know in order to respond to change�. EK whose vision is �to be a leader in the knowledge and practice of ecotourism� should have done better by preparing the local communities for the tourism industry. This can be realised through the provision of a serious marketing platform for the CBOs (Community Based Organisations) since at the very basic level, such initiatives must be known to exist. According to Boniface (2001, p. 43), �information is pivotal to the tourism industry in order to deliver a versatile, viable product, as well as to enable a market to understand the use and care of the item that the industry has provided in response to the market�s perceived wishes�.

However, this is not normally the case in that sometimes, community members owning these enterprises would wait for tourists to come without really being pro-actively involved. For instance, the community bandas at Isecheno, whose bed occupancy stood at 9% in 2007 (table 3) do not have any promotional messages and materials like brochures to attract visitors. The email address is hardly used, no sign posts on the way and no community member is in charge of marketing. Information and Communication Technology (ICT) has not been fully embraced with the website information link on  HYPERLINK "http://www.ecotourismkenya.org" www.ecotourismkenya.org under �community groups/Kakamega Environmental Education Programme� lacking in appeal and presentation. How then can these projects be sustainable economically in the long run without being open to the tourism markets? 

Even for the tourists at Kakamega, the forest is the principal attraction. Around this forest, tourism is principally nature based with little interest shown towards the local surroundings and culture (Kihima, 2014). Here, the tourists visit the forest without being interested in village tours. There is no concrete interaction between the tourists and the local communities (Kihima, 2010). This may be due to the fact that there are low levels of interest or capacity within the local community to serve the tourism industry within their locality, or tourism may be an industry that is too complex for them. The relationship must be such that the tourists should be fascinated by the cultural aspect (if provided by the local people) and that the local people should seize the opportunity to benefit from such visits. However, this is not always the case. For instance, in Bigondi village in Uganda, Lepp (2008, p. 1210) noted that despite the tourists� interest in dining with the local people, �not a single resident has made an effort to capitalize on the apparent market for roasted goat and dinners with locals. Instead, the residents wait passively for their name to be called by a passing tourist�. Indeed, the interaction between the locals and the tourists in Kakamega area remains marginal and superficial, through gestures of �greetings� and within a �framework of research� but not in the strict aspect of �tourism�. The gap between the local communities and the tourism sector puts to test the EK motto. Wheeller (1997) sums it all up by noting that sustainability is an exercise in futility if local communities are not actively involved through participation and eventual attainment of benefits. 

The involvement of members of local community in conservation and tourism must go beyond simple initiation of such projects, which lack concrete structures for their implementation and management. These types of projects like the bandas are far from being integrated in the host community, such that very few people profit from them. For instance, it is incomprehensible that there are only 40 �active� members (EK records 200 members on their website) in this group, while the nearby community is much larger. Moreover, a good majority of people including the local director of the Kenya Forest Service denounce this association for having no impact to the rest of the community (Kihima, 2010). Thus, these projects, without careful follow-up over the years, become more disconnected from the community just like resort based enclave tourism in coastal areas. They become exclusive even though in theory they are termed as projects done for, by and with the host community. This may be attributed to lack of motivation among local populations, majority of whom are not competent in tourism related activities as well as the fear of remaining indefinitely volunteers without any accrued benefits. Still, even if such ventures gave space to the local people to engage in conservation, it showed weaknesses inherent in local participation. Most times the community members are not self organizing or skilled enough to build initiatives. Their progress depends heavily on outside intervention and financial backing. 

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS
The aforementioned presentation shows the determination by EK in ensuring that nature is conserved rather than exploited (table 2). Though EK has tried in leading the way along the sustainability lane, the debate surrounding the concept of ecotourism is still fraught with paradoxes and gaps. First it has revolved around the well-being of the natural environment by being described as a soft, responsible and non-perturbing displacement. For example, it is prohibited to exceed the speed limit of 40 km/h and to drive off the designated tracts within the Kenyan terrestrial parks (table 4). 

Table 4: Kenya Wildlife Service, Park and Marine Code

Nevertheless, popular representation of ecotourism as �responsible travel to natural areas �� seems to forget the role played by the public sector stakeholders in maintaining the integrity of the environment. A requirement for responsible travel is described by Prosser (1992, p. 39) as being rhetoric in the sense that �when on holiday� we may give little thought to whether such behaviour is socially or environmentally acceptable in our chosen destination, and indeed, if we are aware, we may rationalize that we have paid and they have taken our money, so we are entitled to enjoy our holidays as we wish�. It is therefore unlikely that tourists will be �working� on ensuring that their holiday behaviour is directed towards the tenets of sustainable tourism. Being an escape activity, tourists would not want to be immersed in the worries of the day to day life such as environmental protection. This means that many people express a sense of entitlement to enjoy their holidays as they choose (Miller et al., 2010). Nevertheless, in many instances just like the KWS wildlife code, the focus is mainly on the traveller whom we expect to travel responsibly, ethically and �softly�. Even EK defines ecotourism as �the involvement of tourists in environmental conservation activities directly linked to addressing human development needs, and promotes equitable sharing of benefits accrued from tourism with local communities while supporting their nature conservation values�. 

However, beyond responsible traveller, a more widened reflection is needed, that which takes into account �responsible development and planning� for concerned territories. Gunn (1994, p. 3) emphasizes that tourism is not inherently destructive rather �the truth is that tourism development is being done by those who have too little understanding of what tourism really is and how to plan and design it�. This shows that it is not only the tourist who has the responsibility of improving the environment through his or her purchases (Fennell, 2006) but also deliberate actions through tourism planning especially at site level are needed (Gunn, 1994). Certainly, the genesis of the negative tourism impacts does not lie in the very act of touring but in tourismification. While the attraction needs of the travellers must be integrated in places like parks, the ultimate responsibility lies with destination managers through planning. This is so because tourism places provide service functions including but not limited to accommodation, recreational facilities, accessibility, watch towers and communication equipment among others. Thus, beyond just responsible travellers (as seen in the code of conduct proposed by the KWS in protected areas), responsible hoteliers and tour guides (as certified by EK), other stakeholders like KWS and local authorities in tourism need also to act responsibly especially in destination planning and development. Without them the destination would not be sustainable. For instance, though the majority of certified establishments by EK are in the Mara region, the irony is that it is in this very ecosystem that there continues to be serious signs of degradation (Muriithi, 2014). Mere certification cannot save the scenery or disguise a bad policy for implementation of good tourism plans and development.

Secondly, the call for dynamism within the tourism industry is necessitated because �tourism, as it stands, is already not working very satisfactorily for many involved in it, whether as a tourist or provider� (Boniface, 2001, p. 4). However, �the essence of dynamism is not merely to change, but to be in a constant state of change� (Boniface 2001, p. 14). While the move to undertake eco-rating scheme as well as set up community based projects is laudable due to the reasons aforementioned, it is critical to note that such isolated measures without concerted efforts from all stakeholders may come to naught. There seems to be a gap in monitoring outcomes of such initiatives. Still there is need to find the reason behind low participation in the eco-rating schemes by the accommodation sector.

Finally, it should be noted that the competitive dimension of the tourist destination calls for vigilance among public authorities. In many instances, the basic problem resides in the policy of laissez-faire with regard to the management of destination areas, institutional failure, and selective nature of the local administration to respect the existing laws, politicization of the natural environment issues and also high levels of corruption. While eco-certification may not be able to change the current state of affairs, it is a step forward in making the micro destinations in the country competitive hence promoting the macro destination. Undoubtedly, even for Kakamega Forest Reserve ecotourism can thrive at a significant level. On the other hand, this destination must decide to make ecotourism a privileged choice by realizing that the success of this sector is a function of demand and not just the landscape and its beauty. The lack of a link between community projects and tourist market remains a periodic challenge. 
REFERENCES
Boniface, P. (2001). Dynamic Tourism, Journeying with Change. Clevedon: Channel View Publications. 

Cater, E., (1994). Ecotourism: A sustainable Option. Chichester: John Wiley and Sons. 

Daily Nation Newspaper, (2010). Hoteliers� Blatant Disregard of Law puts Mara Ecosystem at Risk, February 18.

Fennell, D.A., (1999). Ecotourism, an Introduction. London: Routledge.  

Fennell, D.A., (2006). Tourism Ethics. Clevedon: Channel View Publications. 

Fyall, A., Garrod, B., (2005). Tourism Marketing: A Collaborative Approach. Clevedon: Channel View Publications.

Gunn, C.A., (1994). Tourism Planning. Basics, Concepts and Cases. 3rd ed. Washington: Taylor and sons.

Honey, M., (2008). Ecotourism and Sustainable Development: Who Owns Paradise, Washington, Covelo, London: Island press. 

Government of Kenya, (2012). Kenya Facts and Figures 2012. Nairobi: Kenya National Bureau of Statistics. 

Government of Kenya, (2007). Economic Survey 2006. Nairobi: Kenya National Bureau of Statistics. 

Kenya Institute of Public Policy Research and Analysis, (2009). Kenya Economic Report 2009, Building a Globally Competitive Economy. Nairobi: KIPPRA.

Lee, J-S., Hsu, L-T., Han, H., and Kim, Y., (2010). Understanding how Consumers view Green Hotels: How a Hotel�s Green Image Influence Behavioral Intentions, Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 18 (7), 901-914. 

Lepp, A. (2008). Tourism and Dependency: An Analysis of Bigondi Village, Uganda. Tourism Management, 29, 1206-1214.

Manyara, G., Jones, E., (2007). Community-Based Tourism Enterprises development in Kenya: An Exploration of their Potential as Avenues of Poverty Reduction, Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 15 (6), 628-644.

Miller, G., Rathouse, K., Scarles, C., Holmes, K., Tribe, J., (2010). Public Understanding of Sustainable Tourism, Annals of Tourism Research, 37 (3), 627-645.

Muriithi, J.K., (2014). The Role of Certification in enhancing achievement of Sustainable Ecotourism Development in Kenya. In J. Rieucau (ed.), Le Kenya dans la 3e R�volution Touristique (pp 153-181), Paris�: L�Harmattan.

Kihima, B.O., (2010). Towards Unlocking tourism Potential in less visited destinations in Kenya: The case of Western Kenya Region. Unpublished PhD. Thesis, University of Lyon 2, France.

Kihima, B.O., (2014). People and Parks in Kenya: Toward Co-Existence? The Case of Saiwa Swamp and Kakamega Forest Natural Areas, Sociology Study, 4 (2), 170-181.

Okello, M.M., Wishitemi, B.E., Mwinzi, A.M., (2001). Relative Importance of Conservation Areas in Kenya Based on Diverse Tourist Attractions, The Journal of Tourism Studies, 12 (1), 39-49.

Prosser, R., (1992). The Ethics of Tourism. In D.E., Cooper and J.A., Palmer, (eds.). The Environment in Question, London: Routledge. 

Sallows, M., and Font, X., (2004). Ecotourism Certification Criteria and Procedures: Implication for Ecotourism Management. In D., Diamantis, Ecotourism: Management and Assessment, London: Thomson. 

Weaver, D.B., (2003). Ecotourism in the Less Developed World, CABI publishing, Wallingford.

Wheeller, B., (1997). Here We Go, Here We Go, Here We Go Eco. In Stabler, M.J., (ed.). Tourism and Sustainability, Principles to Practice (pp. 39-49). Wallingford: CAB International.

Wishitemi, B. E. L. and M. M. Okello. 2003. Application of the Protected Landscape Model in Southern Kenya. Parks 13 (2), 12-21. 

World Resource Institute; Department of Resource Surveys and Remote Sensing, Ministry of Environment and Natural Resources, Kenya; Central Bureau of Statistics, Ministry of Planning and National Development, Kenya; International Livestock Research Institute, (2007). Nature�s Benefits in Kenya, An Atlas of Ecosystems and Human Well-Being, Washington, DC and Nairobi: World Resources Institute. 

Wu,Y-Y., Wang, H-L., Ho, Y.F., (2010). Urban Ecotourism�: Defining and Assessing Dimensions Using Fuzzy Number Construction, Tourism Management, 31, 739-743.
 
HYPERLINK "http://www.ecotourismkenya.org"www.ecotourismkenya.org (consulted on 10th April 2014)
 HYPERLINK "http://www.kws.org" www.kws.org (consulted on 5th May 2014)
 HYPERLINK "http://www.turtlebay.co.ke" www.turtlebay.co.ke (consulted on 5th May 2014)







Table 1: Eco-rating certification fee
LEVELAPPLICATION FEES US$CERTIFICATION FEE US$VALIDITY PERIOD GOLD1501,3502 yearsBRONZE1508502 years SILVER1503502 yearsSource:  HYPERLINK "http://www.ecotourismkenya.org" www.ecotourismkenya.org

Figure 1: Eco-rating certification emblems

Source:  HYPERLINK "http://www.ecotourismkenya.org" www.ecotourismkenya.org

Table 2: Considered parameters in the evaluation criteria in Kenya
Environmental policiesEnvironmental conservation Waste water managementSolid waste managementPollution Water policy and usageEnergy policy and usageSocio-economic considerationsHealth and safetyDocumentation and recordingVisitor education Staff education and awareness Source:  HYPERLINK "http://www.ecotourismkenya.org" www.ecotourismkenya.org

Table 3: The number of visitors recorded in the community bandas of Kakamega in 2007
Month Visitors Revenue in Ksh. January6462,000February6243,700March2112,000April6249,500May2411,000June 3721,000July 10067,700August 85Not available September 39Not available October26Not available November 33Not available December 38Not available TOTAL 591 500,000 (approximation)Source: Caretaker, KEEP Bandas.

Table 4: Kenya Wildlife Service, Park and Marine Code
Park Wildlife Code ���������
Respect the privacy of the wildlife, this is their habitat.
Beware of the animals, they are wild and can be unpredictable.
Don't crowd the animals or make sudden noises or movements.
Don't feed the animals, it upsets their diet and leads to human dependence.
Keep quiet, noise disturbs the wildlife and may antagonize your fellow visitors.
Stay in your vehicle at all times, except at designated picnic or walking areas.
Keep below the maximum speed limit (40 kph/25 mph).
Never drive off-road, this severely damages the habitat.
When viewing wildlife keep to a minimum distance of 20 meters and pull to the side of the road so as to allow others to pass.
Leave no litter and never leave fires unattended or discard burning objects.
Respect the cultural heritage of Kenya, never take pictures of the local people or their habitat without asking their permission, respect the cultural traditions of Kenya and always dress with decorum.
Stay over or leave before dusk, visitors must vacate the Park between 6.00 p.m. - 6.00 a.m. unless they are camping overnight. Night game driving is not allowed.

Marine Wildlife Code
Check local weather and sea conditions before entering the marine park.
Some marine life is dangerous; do not touch anything under water.
Do not damage or remove corals. It is a living organism which takes many years to form and is host to many rare and endangered species.�
Do not remove shells, starfish or any other sea � flora or fauna. Removal is illegal, seriously disrupts the eco system and some marine life is dangerous. The areas outside the parks and reserves are threatened by excessive shell collection. Empty shells provide homes for hermit crabs and some fish.
Do not buy shells and other marine animal products as souvenirs as this encourages further plundering of the reefs and beaches.
Never dispose of litter on the beach or in the sea. It is illegal and environmentally unfriendly. Marine turtles can confuse clear plastic waste with jelly fish and will die if they eat it.
Hand � feeding of fish is discouraged. It disrupts normal feeding patterns.
Hook and line fishing is allowed in the Marine Reserves but prohibited in Marine Parks. Spear guns are not permitted for use in either.
Environmentally friendly activities such as snorkelling and diving are encouraged, under the supervision of the Kenya Wildlife Service wardens, who work closely with tour operators and hoteliers to ensure strict adherence to this code of practice.
Avoid restaurants that serve undersized crabs and lobsters as this contributes to their rapid demise.
Support traditional coastal livelihoods and do not give money to children on the beach, as this can encourage them to stay away from school.
Respect the cultural heritage of Kenya, never take pictures of the local people or their habitat without asking their permission, respect the cultural traditions of Kenya and always dress with decorum.Source:  HYPERLINK "http://www.kws.org" www.kws.org



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