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BY
Gehad. S. Eldeeb, Sayed M. Mokhtar, Gamal. A. Mostafa, Refat. A. Taha, Amal A. Gaballa
Dept. of Food Tech., Fac. of Agriculture, Suez Canal Univ., Ismailia, Egypt

INTRODUCTION

Biogenic amines (BAs) are low-molecular, basic, aliphatic, aromatic or heterocyclic compounds derived from amino acids occurring in living organisms in the form of metabolic intermediates and products showing biological activity. The essential condition for the formation of BAs is the presence of amino acids in a given substrate, the presence of microorganisms with decarboxylase activity and suitable conditions for the growth and activity of microorganisms. The formation process of biogenic amines is catalyzed by microbial enzymes (decarboxylases). The production of these compounds proceeds through several steps, starting from proteins via peptides to amino acids, the decarboxylation of which leads to BA formation [32]. Lactic acid bacteria (LAB), including the representatives of Lactococcus genus, also belong to microorganisms with decarboxylase enzymes [4]. It has been found that the ability to produce BAs is specific to certain strains of microorganisms rather than to certain species. This means that various strains of the same species can differ in the production of BAs [3, 5, 9, 13].
The production of biogenic amines (BAs) by bacteria can be influenced by several external factors through affecting the kinetics of decarboxylase reactions, the growth of the aminogenic microorganisms and also the expression of their decarboxylase potential. The external factors influencing the production of BAs in bacteria include temperature and pH-value of the environment, aero/anaerobiosis, availability of carbon sources (e.g. glucose), the presence of growth factors, growth phase of the cells, NaCl concentration (water activity), etc. [11, 20- 22, 25, 26, 29- 31, 41].
Several authors highlighted the relationship between hygienic quality of raw material and aliphatic amines accumulation: changes in concentration of PUT and CAD are known to correlate with the microbial spoilage, storage temperature and storage time of meat [18], while TYR is usually the most common amine found in fermented sausage and dry cured meat products because it is mainly related to the activity of fermentative lactic acid bacteria [39]. For all these reasons biogenic amines profile could be an important index in quality assurance of fresh and processed meat [7].
The production of BAs is an extremely complex process, depending on several factors, such as the initial species and amount of BAs producing microorganisms, the effect of starter on BAs and environmental condition. Some authors held that the addition of negative amine-producer starter culture to carry out a controlled fermentation could be an advisable practice to prevent excessive amine accumulation [8, 9, 17, 23, 33].
The aim of the present work was to study the influence of the hygienic quality of raw materials on biogenic amine accumulation (as Critical Control Point) during fermentation and storage of fresh fermented sausage. Other parameters (pH value, water content and microbial counts) that might provide further information on the product under study were also determined.
MATERIALS AND METHODS

The materials used in this research included raw meat, fat (from round cuts of hindquarter of  cow carcass), spices and mutton casing obtained from the local market were directly transferred to Food Technology Department, Faculty of Agriculture Suez Canal University.
	Mutton casing was prepared by removing it carefully from the slaughtered animal without punctures to avoid contaminate carcass as well as to provide the minimum length requirements. Three essential operations were performed prior to curing: fat was removed as completely as possible the intestinal contents were stripped under a spray of water to keep the exterior clean, then slime were removed. Natural casing was salt cured and packed in barrels with salt. Before using the casings were soaked and well washed with water and were kept wet at all times once the salt was removed prior filling according to the method described by [19].

Chemicals:
	All reagents were analytical grade. Biogenic amine standards were purchased from sigma chemical Co. A11 media used in microbiological analysis (Man, Rogosa and Sharpe (MRS) agar, violet red bile dextrose agar and pseudomonas agar were obtained from Merck (Germany). Starter cultures (Lactobacillus plantarum, Bifidobacterium lactis Bb-12 and Bifidobacterium bifidum RBL 71) were obtained from DVS, Chr Hansen's lab. Denmark.

Samples preparation:
The meat and fat used in sausage preparation were minced to a 6 mm particle size in a meat mincer and divided into three portions A, B and C to study the variability of meat quality due to differences in the storage conditions of meat. Sample (A) was processed into sausage immediately after mixing it with the other ingredients and additives, [2% sodium chloride; 6% starch; 13.0 % water (as ice); 0.16% sodium glutamate; 0.5% garlic; 0.50% onion; 0.03% potassium nitrate; 0.01% sodium nitrite and 0.56% spices mixture (red pepper 11.51%; all spices 10.0%; black pepper 45.0%; coriander 12%; nutmeg 2.5%; cumin 15.0% and clove 4.5%)].
sample (B) was kept at 4�C for 48 hrs before sausage processing while sample (C) was stored for 6 hrs at 25�C before processing. Fermentation of the three samples was carried out by using cultures L. plantarum plus B. lactis and B. bifidum.
	Each mixture was homogenized and stuffed into sheep casing according to the method described by [19]. After that, sausage samples received a one minute dip in 0.001% sorbic acid solution to prevent the growth of fungal culture on the surface of sausage sample during the fermentation. The sausage was fermented for 72 hr at 20 to 22�C [93 to 98% relative humidity] according to [8]. The end products were stored at 4�C for 14 days.
	(BAs) contents, total volatile nitrogen (TVN), water content, pH and microbial counts (LAB, Pseudomonas bacteria and Enterobacteriaceae) were determined in duplicates at zero, 12, 24, 48 and 72 hrs during fermentation and during cold storage for 14 days.

Chemical analysis:
	Moisture contents were determined according to the method described by [2] method No. 24003. The pH value was measured directly in 3:1 (water: meat) homogenate according to method described by [46]. Total volatile nitrogen (TVN) was determined according to the method described by [37]. As the following: about 100�0.5 g was weighed from prepared sample and placed into a blender with 300ml trichloracetic acid (TCA) (5%) until obtaining uniform slurry. The resulting slurry was centrifuged at 5000 rpm to obtain a clear extract. Exactly 5ml of the extract was pipetted into a semi micro distillation apparatus (UDK, 130A) and 5ml of NaOH (2N) was added. The final steamed distillate was collected in 15ml of standard hydrochloric acid (0.01N). Rosolic acid was added to the solution as an indicator (1percent rosalic acid in 10 percent v/v ethanol). Titrate to a pale pink end point with sodium hydroxide. The amount of TVBN was expressed as mg/100g.

(BAs) were determined by the high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) according to method described by [16] as a following:  Finely ground sausage sample (5 g) was transferred to 50-ml centrifuge tubes and homogenised (Ultra Turrax homogeniser) with 20 ml of 5% TCA solution for about 2 min. The supernatant was collected by centrifugation (10,000g, 4�C, 10 min) and the residue was extracted again with an equal volume of TCA solution.
Both supernatants were combined and filtered through a filter paper (Whatman No. 4). The filtrate was made up to 50 ml with 5% TCA solution and stored at 0�4�C for high-performance liquid chromatography (Agilent 1100 Series; Agilent, Santa Clara, CA) analysis within a week.
The derivatisation reagent was prepared by transferring 100 mg o-phthalaldehyde (OPA), 1 ml acetonitrile and 130 �l 2-mercaptoethanol to a 10-ml volumetric flask, and then diluting with 0.4 M borate buffer (pH 10.2) to 10 ml. The resulting solution was mixed well, and stored refrigerated and used within 24 hrs.
Pre-column derivatisation with OPA was performed automatically.
A reverse-phase Hypersil ODS C18 (125� 4.60 mm, particle size 5 lm) column was used for separation. The column temperature and flow rate were set at 40�C and 1.0 ml/min, respectively. The mobile phase consisted of solvent A (pH 7.2), 7.35 mM sodium acetate solution: triethylamine: tetrahydrofuran (500:0.12:2.5 v/v), and solvent B (pH 7.2), 7.35 mM sodium acetate solution:methanol:acetonitrile (1:2:2 v/v). Fluorescence was monitored at an emission wavelength of 450 nm using an excitation wavelength of 340 nm.
	Biogenic amine standards, tyramine hydrochloride, tryptamine hydrochloride, putrescine dihydrochloride, cadaverine dihydrochloride, 2- phenylethylamine hydrochloride, spermidine trihydrocholoride, spermine tetrahydrochloride and histamine dihydrochloride were purchased from Sigma (St. Louis, MO). Double-distilled and deionised water was used for dilution and chromatographic separation.



Bacteriological analysis:
	For bacterial enumeration 10 g of sausage samples without casing were cut into small pieces and homogenized in 90 ml 0.1% peptone water using homogenizer, serial dilutions up to 106 were prepared from the original dilution. LAB were enumerated on Man, Rogosa and Sharpe (MRS) agar (Merck) incubated at 30�C for 48 hr anaerobically (anaerobic Jar System BBL, Cockeysville Md.); Enterobacteriaceae on violet red bile dextrose agar (Merck) incubated at 30�C for 24 hrs anaerobically and Pseudomonas on pseudomonas agar (Difco) at 25�C for 48 hr.

Statistical analysis:
Standard error (SE) and significant differences between the mean values of the estimated tests were performed using the software package Statistical 9.1 for Windows, Stat Soft, Tulsa, Oklahoma, USA, 2009. Differences were considered significant at P < 0.05.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

	Biogenic amines (BAs) develop and accumulate in food and beverages as a consequence of enzymatic amino acids decarboxylation due to microbial enzymes and � to a lesser extent � to tissue activity [42]. The determination of biogenic amines in fresh and processed food is getting of great interest not only for their potential risk for human health, but also because they could have a role as chemical indicators of unwanted microbial contamination and processing conditions [24].

Quality of raw materials:
	As predicted, the quality of the raw meat materials depended on the treatment. Fresh meat (Treatment A) maintained its quality, the microbial count was 2.08�0.1013 log CFU/g for lactic acid bacteria (LAB), 2.11�1.0021 CFU/g for Pseudomonas and 2.06�0.0061 CFU/g for Enterobacteriaceae. However, storage under refrigerated conditions (Treatment B) allowed the growth of microorganisms, especially of LAB that rose to 3.15�1.1511 log CFU/g. While Pseudomanas and Enterobacteriaceae counts were 2.81�0.1131 and 2.78�0.0021 log CFU/g respectively. Similar trend observed during storage meat at 25�C (Treatment C) as shown in Fig. (1). The data also indicated that within 6 hrs at 25�C Pseudomonas and Enterobacteriaceae were higher than those of sample A and B (Fig. 1) [40] reported that the low initial microbial counts suggests good hygienic manufacturing conditions.



	Many authors support the belief that the microorganisms present in traditional sausages are derived from the raw materials or from the environment of manufacturing [45]. The variability of the residual contamination highlighted the different cleaning, disinfecting and manufacturing practices of the small scale processing units [43]. In fact, unclean, insufficiently or inadequately cleaned pieces of equipment have often been identified as the source of pathogens [38]. Many studies investigated the pathogen flora of food processing environments and food processing lines such as L. monocytogenes in pork and poultry processing plants and products [15] and Salmonella in pork slaughter and cutting plants [27].



Microbiological changes through out Fermentation and cold storage:
	Microbial changes during fermentation are shown in Fig. (2). Initial counts of Enterobacteriaceae (3.14 CFU/g) decreased during fermentation by more than logarithmic unit, ending up at less than 2 log CFU/g in all treatments. This is typical decrease due to the environmental conditions which make Gram�Negative bacterial growth difficult [10]. In contrast, LAB increased during the fermentation process and reaching to a maximum of 107 CFU/g after 14 day of cold storage. Fig. (2,3).




	A little reduction was observed in Pseudomonas bacterial count during fermentation and cold storage especially in sample B and C, the data showed that during storage; sample A and B had high numbers of lactic acid bacterial (108 log CFU/g) and low numbers of Pseudomonas and Enterobacteriaceae compared to sample C (Fig.  2,3,4,5). These data are in agreement with those reported by [35] who reported that LAB and Enterococci increased in number through the manufacturing process, while Enterobacteriaceae counts decreased. Also [12] mentioned that a reduction of Enterobacteria development during sausage fermentation.











Moisture content and pH value:
pH-values:-
	The results of the main physico�chemical parameters (pH-values and moisture content) associated with the fermentation of sausage are shown in Table (1) and Fig (6). pH values showed a strong decrease during the first few days, coinciding with the growth of LAB, reaching values between 6.38 and 5.32 depending on the quality of meat. These results are good agreement with those reported by [35] who reported that the inoculation of the starter resulted in a much stronger acidification during the first week of production.




On the other hand, an increase in pH was observed at the end of the storage period (Fig. 7) particularly in treatment (C) which may be elucidated to the production of volatile base compounds by bacterial activity [14].




Moisture content:-
	There were little differences in the moisture content among the three treatments studied. The data showed that, the moisture content was decreased for all samples during fermentation and cold storage. After 72 hrs of fermentation the total loss in moisture content was 5.37, 6.64 and 6.96% for treatment A , B and C respectively, while it was 12.39, 14.13 and 14.48% for the same treatment respectively after 14 days of storage (Table 2).
Time (hr)


Treatments
0
12
24
48
72
A
69.12a �0.0651
68.39a �0.0092
67.61a �0.0331
66.81a �0.0062
65.41a �0.1014
B
67.32b �0.0462
66.91b �0.0035
66.21b �0.0129
65.71b �0.0084
64.65b �0.0282
C
67.19b �0.0335
66.85b �0.0123
66.10b �0.0081
65.25b �0.0211
64.31b �0.0113

Table (1): Changes in mean values � standard error of moisture content during fermentation of sausage prepared from raw meat kept at different storage conditions.



(A)= Sausage sample prepared from fresh meat.
(B)= Sausage sample prepared from meat after storage at 4�C for 48 hrs.
(C)= Sausage sample prepared from meat after storage at 25�C for 6 hrs.
Mean in the same column with different superscripts are significantly different at p< 0.05




Table (2): Changes in mean values � standard error of moisture content during cold storage at 4�C of fermented sausage prepared from raw meat kept at different storage conditions.
Time (hr)


Treatments
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
A
65.41a �0.1014
64.72a �0.0028
64.11a �0.0116
63.21a �0.0015
62.35a �0.0031
61.12a �0.0132
61.32a �0.0612
60.55a �0.0426
B
64.65b �0.0282
64.01b �0.0132
63.32b �0.0214
62.51a �0.0110
61.91a �0.0201
61.08a �0.0118
60.77a �0.1008
59.35a �0.0211
C
64.31b �0.0113
63.92b �0.0071
63.16b �0.0089
62.16b �0.0031
61.65a �0.0215
60.91b �0.0112
60.01a �0.0562
59.11a �0.1006
(A)= Sausage sample prepared from fresh meat.
(B)= Sausage sample prepared from meat after storage at 4�C for 48 hrs.
(C)= Sausage sample prepared from meat after storage at 25�C for 6 hrs.
Mean in the same column with different superscripts are significantly different at p< 0.05

Total volatile nitrogen (TVN):
	The mean values of TVN are shown in Fig. (	8). From the data it could be noticed that the initial value of TVN in the different three investigated treatments were ranged between 8.51 to 12.42 mg/100g. During fermentation and cold storage a significant increase in TVN for all treatments occurred with different rates depending on the initial treatments. The sample (C) showed the highest incremental rate compared to other treatments. The progressive increase in TVN during cold storage may be attributed to the breakdown of nitrogenous substances as a result of microbial activity and any autolytic enzymes found naturally in tissue as reported by [1].

	Low levels of TVN in treatments A and B were due to either a reduced bacterial population. [6] showed that low levels of TVN in treated samples were due to either a reduced bacterial population or decreased capacity of bacteria for oxidative de-amination of non-protein nitrogen compounds or both of them. During ripening of meat products, the proteins undergo degradation processes; large peptides are first generated and then degraded into oligopeptides, and these are in turn degraded to free amino acids. The free amino acids are then catabolised, giving rise to different compounds such as ammonia, �-ketoacids, methylketones and amines. In meat products, formation of biogenic amines is largely associated with the activity of microorganisms present in meat [42]. In raw-cured sausages, microorganisms of the Enterobacteriaceae family have been revealed to have a high capacity for producing biogenic amines, particularly putrescine and cadaverine [9].



Biogenic amines (BAs):
	The (BAs) values in samples are demonstrated in Table (	3). A great variability was observed in the BAs content of samples from different treatments. As previous reported, TYR, CAD and PUT were the main amines found in meat [28, 34, 36]. In this work, TYR, CAD and PUT were the most abundant BAs in samples. The concentrations of TYR, CAD, PUT, HIS and TRY in the batch A at zero time were 6.52� ,0.81� ,0.47� ,0.31�   and 0.45�  mg/kg respectively (Fig. 9,10,11), while were 17.22� , 1.85� , 1.20� , 0.92� and 1.03� mg/kg at the end of storage time, which were lower than the other two batches (Table, 3) however the amount of HIS and TRY in all batches was lower than the others at 14 days of cold storage at 4�C�1 which probably starter culture can produce TRY oxidase reducing its accumulation similar results reported by [36].

	Usually, indigenous Enterobacteriaceae, Enterococcus, Pseudomonas sp., Micrococcus sp. and Lactobacillus, are the producers of BAs [42].
So indigenous bacteria are responsible for BA production as it existed in treatment B and C at zero time when substantial amount of TYR, CAD and PUT were produced. At the same time the amount of BAs content in treatment (A) is lower than the other batches as indigenous bacteria was inhibited by starter culture and may be due to the treatment (A) had a lower number of Enterbacteriaceae and Pseudomonas sp. compared to other treatments.

Table (3): Type and amount of biogenic amines (mg/kg) detected in sausage sample prepared from meat kept at different storage conditions.
TreatmentsAmineTimeABCTyraminezero time6.52a�
0.00218.11a�
0.113221.61b�
0.0053after fermentation11.13a�
0.010014.85b�
0.031118.02c�
0.0120after 14 days of storage17.22a�
0.003619.01a�
0.020122.16b�
0.0314Cadaverinezero time0.81a�
0.00161.22a�
0.02162.53b�
0.0235after fermentation1.31a�
0.00241.56a�
0.01133.14b�
0.0126after 14 days of storage1.85a�
0.01112.04a�
0.00314.36b�
0.0312Putrescinezero time0.47a�
0.00801.02b�
0.01021.95c�
0.0035after fermentation0.89a�
0.00211.49b�
0.03312.71c�
0.0001after 14 days of storage1.20a�
0.00161.91b�
0.02513.79c�
0.0211Histaminezero time0.31a�
0.00170.93a�
0.00251.32b�
0.0007after fermentation0.56a�
0.00081.72b�
0.01031.96b�
0.1100after 14 days of storage0.92a�
0.00011.82b�
0.01102.19c�
0.1030Tryptaminezero time0.45a�
0.00310.82a�
0.00181.52b�
0.0031after fermentation0.82a�
0.01201.35b�
0.01111.83b�
0.0012after 14 days of storage1.03a�
0.01131.76b�
0.00192.66c�
0.0015

(A)= Sausage sample prepared from fresh meat.
(B)= Sausage sample prepared from meat after storage at 4�C for 48 hrs.
(C)= Sausage sample prepared from meat after storage at 25�C for 6 hrs.

Mean in the same column with different superscripts are significantly different at p< 0.05

	Tyramine is the most common biogenic amine, capable of causing food poisoning symptoms, in fermented sausages [44]. Moreover, sausage reached lower pH values and higher free amino acid contents during fermentation. Both factors are known to favour biogenic amine production by microorganisms, since bacterial decarboxylase enzymes are induced by the presence of precursor amino acids at mild acid pH [10].
In previous work [12] the aminogenesis in spontaneously fermented fuet [A kind of sausage] was much more important, even when the hygienic quality of raw materials was optimal in both cases. Who also mentioned that the temperature of fermentation was considerably higher (17�C) than in the present study (12�C), and this may suggest that, besides the hygiene of raw materials and formulation, temperature might be a technologically important parameter to control the aminogenic activity of spontaneous fermenting microorganisms.
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PAGE  


PAGE  26







Fig. (1): Microbial counts of meat mixture at zero time.
A= Fresh minced meat
B= Stored minced meat at 4�C for 48 hrs
C= Stored minced meat at 25�C for 6 hrs


Fig. (2): Microbial counts of sausage samples after 72 hrs of fermentation.
A= Fresh meat 
B= Stored meat at 4�C for 48 hrs
C= Stored meat at 25�C for 6 hrs




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$��A$^��a$gd|o'$���`�A$^��`�`�a$gd�K�y�����������ȅ�������,*,2,:,?,P,Q,Y,`,p,w,�,�,�,�,�,�,�,�,�,�,�,�,--_-b-e-f-h-i-l-~-�-�-�-�-�-�-�-�-�-..�����������������ٷ����������٦����ٷ����ٛ٦����ٷ�����h�R5�CJ\�aJ h9hK\X5�6�CJ\�]�aJhVL�hK\X5�\�Uh�K�5�CJ\�aJhK\X5�CJ\�aJhVL�hK\X5�CJ\�aJh�#hK\XhK\Xh{�hK\X5�CJ\�aJ9): Lactic acid bacterial counts of sausage samples during cold storage at 4�C�1.
A= Fresh minced meat
B= Stored minced meat at 4�C for 48 hrs
C= Stored minced meat at 25�C for 6 hrs

Fig. (4): Pseudomonas bacterial counts of sausage samples during cold storage at 4�C�1.
A= Fresh meat
B= Stored meat at 4�C for 48 hrs
C= Stored meat at 25�C for 6 hrs



Fig. (5): Enterobacteriaceae bacterial counts of sausage samples during cold storage at 4�C�1.
A= Fresh meat
B= Stored meat at 4�C for 48 hrs
C= Stored meat at 25�C for 6 hrs


Fig. (6): Changes in pH value of sausage samples during fermentation.
A= Fresh meat
B= Stored meat at 4�C for 48 hrs
C= Stored meat at 25�C for 6 hrs


Fig. (7): Changes in pH value of sausage samples during cold storage at 4�C�1.
A= Fresh meat
B= Stored meat at 4�C for 48 hrs
C= Stored meat at 25�C for 6 hrs

Fig. (8): Changes in TVN content (mg/100g) of raw meat and sausage samples during fermentation and cold storage.
A= Fresh minced meat
B= Stored minced meat at 4�C for 48 hrs
C= Stored minced meat at 25�C for 6 hrs








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