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 �:	FLOCKING TRAVELLERS: THE MIND-SPACE TETHER 



Bernard Lew Shian Loong
Taylor�s University
 HYPERLINK "mailto:Bernard.lew@taylors.edu.my" Bernard.lew@taylors.edu.my





Abstract


The paper validates the notion that destination competitiveness is achieved, when there is congruence between visitors� mindset and destination spaces. Conventionally an attribute-based explanation for destination competitiveness makes sense if we take a spatial, geographical approach. But if destinations were to be thought of as places that elicit meaning for individuals, mindsets would take center stage and a destination�s �flocking� capacity becomes a proxy for its competitiveness. If visitors are the life and soul of a destination, it matters less in the first instance whether a destination is physically-attractive but whether it serves to draw interesting kinds of people. In this sense destinations are defined and are given character by their visitors. It can therefore be argued that a destination�s popularity is a function of its tourists� well-being.  Tourists� well-being depends on the fit between ordered space and visitor mindsets. The common denominator in this mind-space tether is collective knowledge that is produced by recursive, spatial-interactive rules. Simulation results based on a select category of such rules suggests that destinations need to be �seeded� with the right kind of tourists at the onset and that this together with the right mechanisms for rule adoption determines a destination�s  ultimate �flocking� capacity. 



Keywords: destination personality, analogy-making, self-organization, spatial rules, mind-space congruence, emergent competitiveness, destination personality, cellular automata.
Issues and Background

There is a belief that visitors make or break a destination, and it matters less whether these destinations are physically-attractive, so as long as they continue to attract interesting kinds of people (Plog 1973, 2001). Perhaps a more common analogy for this is to think of what sums up the success of a social gathering. Is it the venue or the right composition of guests? Taking such a view, destinations are defined and are given character by their visitors. It can therefore be argued that a destination�s popularity is a function of its tourists� well-being.  Destination competitiveness depends on the level of mapping between ordered space and visitor mindsets. Some have gone so far as to coin the term destination personality (Erkinci and Hosanyi 2006). This paper argues that destination personality arises from a mind-space tether that is collective knowledge. Such knowledge is built up recursively, through repeated spatial interactions between visitors and destination spaces and manifests itself through flocking behavior.

While flocking may be evidence enough for a destination�s success, what remains to be understood is its sensitivity to certain conditions or rules. Despite much interest in competitiveness attributes and claims to successful destination planning, destinations may nonetheless gravitate towards some degree of spontaneous order, other than its planned destiny. Does this suggest that planning is bound to be futile to a degree and that destination planners should succumb to fatalism? What is wrong?  The more pertinent question seems to be whether rules engendered by the planning process, realize a given order at destinations. Any prevailing economic order can be traced to a prevailing set of rule (Hayek 1964). For destination personality to be a determinant of competitiveness, the right kind of rules, must of necessity, enhance the mind-space tether. Spatial interactive rules may hold the key to understanding the link between individual knowledge and emergent spatial order. The science (Wolfram 2002) and economics of self-organization (Beinhocker 2006) gives us a ready set of analytical tools to investigate such phenomena, in particular how tourists flock to certain attractions. It suggests three gaps in the state-of-the-art and science:

Lack of emphasis on the idea that the prevailing order is a product of recursive application of rules

Treatment of geographical spaces as mere ecologies and backdrop rather than substrates for emergent competitiveness. 

Low acceptance of dualistic characteristics and the multimodal functions of economic agents  

Rules and spatial order

One cannot begin to properly formulate top-down responses to destination challenges without a prior knowledge of bottom-up dynamics (Schelling 1978). Rules provide the short hand for understanding emergent phenomenon. Rules form the backbone of the competitive DNA. Game theoretic literature and research at the intersection of law and economics have at least hinted at this notion for some time now (Hayek 1964, Klein 1997, Romer 2010). For tourism the competitive DNA is not rooted in physical attributes of a destination rather the holy grail of destination competitiveness is to be found in the psychographics of visitors (Plog 1973, 2001). Visitors are the originators and carriers of spatial interactive rules that eventually result in the prevailing order at a destination (Plog 1973, 2001). Often planners miss this point by side-lining visitors, focusing on infrastructure development instead.  The management and planning agenda should always be rooted in the visitor, treating �tourists as sensors� while keeping a close eye on a destination�s evolution. 

Space, more than tourism ecology 

Space is the final frontier in economics and tourism, as Papatheodorou (2000) pointed out: �tourism is a spatial phenomena par excellence.� The earliest work in spatial economics can be traced all the way back to von Th�nen (1826) and L�sch (1940). Hotelling (1929) was an early but seminal microeconomic treatment of spatial competition and spatial equilibrium. By far the most-cited work and highly influential in economics, urban theory and geography is Christaller�s (1933) central place theory. Ever since then there has been a cross-pollination of ideas. Formal approaches in spatial modeling have a long history in geography and regional science (Rogers 1965, Issard and Liossatos 1978, ReVelle 1986). Yet even though the spatial modeling of tourism phenomena (Vasiliadis and Kobotis 1999) and destinations is not entirely new; it only received attention from tourism economists rather recently (Morley 1994, Papatheodorou 2000); and most discussions treat space as an organizing theme (Argawal 1994, Oppermann 1993, Wahab and Cooper 2001, Hayllar, Griffin and Edwards 2008) rather than an actual component of competitiveness (L�sch, 1940, Perroux 1950, Krugman 1998). A subfield has flourished in tourism geography (Lau and McKercher 2006, Wu and Cai 2006), sociology and philosophy (Foucault 1967) concerns itself with spatial semiotics (Culler 1981, Urry 2002) tourist mobility or tourist itineraries (Pearce 1999, McKercher and Lau 2008). Tourism economists have given emphasis to the supply-side of economic spaces, while tourism researchers seem to be enthralled with the demand-side of geonomic spaces.

Fuzzy versus discrete destinations

If destinations are seen as a gathering places for like-minded visitors as suggested by Plog (2001), then it is behooves us to understand the mechanics of congruence. The missing link in mind-space affinities. Looking at flocking phenomenon and spatial agglomeration, it becomes apparent that the issue is one of accepting entanglement and fuzziness. Destination resilience can be achieved by setting rules that encourage a diverse set of visitors and adoption of rules as a destination develops. Heterotopias, microcosms and third places are the physical realizations of these rules. The quotes below bring out the essence of these kinds of destinations.

On heterotopias: 

�The heterotopia is capable of juxtaposing in a single real place several spaces, several sites that are in themselves incompatible. Thus it is that the theater brings onto the rectangle of the stage, one after the other, a whole series of places that are foreign to one another; thus it is that the cinema is a very odd rectangular room, at the end of which, on a twodimensional screen, one sees the projection of a three-dimensional space, but perhaps the oldest example of these heterotopias that take the form of contradictory sites is the garden.� 

(Foucault 1967, pg. 5)

On microcosms:

�There is rarely any attempt to go beneath this level and to look at the structure and functioning of individual components of any of these zones. Yet these individual features constitute the basic building blocks on which urban tourism is founded and understanding what happens at this scale (the site-specific or microscale) is surely essential for a fuller
comprehension of tourism in the city as a whole.�
(Pearce 1999, pg. 78)


On third places: 

�People started �staging� stores and restaurants, revamping museums and erecting the first experience hotels. The sensuality and homeliness of these places induced people to perceive these semi-public spaces as personal habitats as well. This gave birth to the Third Place, and made those �staged habitats� become part of the vitality of our cities.� 
(Mikunda 2008, pg. 2-3)

Methodology


The investigation of emergent order from recursive rules played out over many rounds is best investigated through computer simulations. Simulations allow researchers to attain such a prior, �before-the-fact�, bottom-up knowledge (Axelrod 2003, Epstein and Axtell 1996) of destinations. This is particularly true if insights into the emergent, �becoming� aspects (Heidegger 1962), of destination competiveness are sought. Combined with the analytical apparatus of a molecular metaphor (Mitchell, 1993), simulations allow for the construction of destinations from their constitutional elements.  Such modular, molecular approaches are fast becoming the dominant paradigm in the natural sciences. Witness the rise of quantum mechanic and investigations into the subatomic realm.  This paradigm shift is likely to dominate destination research at some point. Perhaps realizing the long-awaited, and foretold �scientification of tourism� (Jafari, 2001). The ideal is to match destination planning with better understanding of destination emergence.

Biological Metaphor for Destinations

The particular kind of simulation used in this paper is called a cellular automata (CA).

Cellular automata has been used/proposed for:
� A new kind of science (Wolfram 2002)
� Astrophysics (Shulman 1993)
� Urban theory/development (Batty 2005, Samat 2006 )
� Epidemics and other natural phenomena (Gaylord and Nishidate 1996)

The mind-space tether is based on three premises. The first premise is that destination competitiveness originates from visitors� mindsets. The second premise is that physical spaces enhance or mitigate the levels of competitiveness. These two premises have been the theme of a large body of research but there is seldom an explicit attempt to link them. The third premise is that the best condition is described by third places, microcosms and heteropias, where the mind and its interaction with space is fused in one continued experience.

This paper implements these premises in the simulation program by adopting an epidemic metaphor (Gaylord Nishidate 1996), resulting in a cell biology-motivated model of destination competitiveness. In effect the research uses the cell-body tether as an analogy for the mind-space tether. In a world of fast computers and sophisticated modeling software, analogy-making has graduated from its philosophical roots (Lakoff and Johnson 2003) to a respectable methodology for investigating self-organized, emergent phenomena (Mitchell 2001).  

How do rules represent and define visitor and destination personality simultaneously? In a CA modeling environment, the simulation takes place on a lattice of cells. Each cell is bimodal in the sense that one of its function is to process information from its immediate environment and its other function is to be part of the phenomenon it creates. Furthermore CA has co-evolutionary scalability in the sense that simple recursive rules are used to grow cells (i.e.visitors) into complex macrostructures (i.e. destinations). And the converse process is possible, reducing emergent complex macrostructures to simple rules (Shian Loong and Kong-Yew 2007). 

The level of internal validity of the model is not arbitrarily-determined but is checked by its correspondence to Plog� conjectures about visitor-destination co-evolution (Plog 1973, 2001). However Plog is largely silent on the actual scaling or units used for certain dimensions or variables considered. This is especially so for the spatial dimension, since it was not Plog�s original intent to discuss visitor-destination co-evolution as a spatial process.  Yet Plog is one of the few theorists in destination competitiveness that has given thought to the mechanism of self-organization. The main thesis of this paper is that a destination is tethered to its visitors through self-organizing mechanisms bringing about requisite spatial order and the continuing popularity so vital to its continued competitiveness 

For the purpose of external validity, there is a need to give the simulation parameterization a tourism contextualization, as otherwise there would be no difference between this implementation of tourism contagion and Gaylord and Nishidate�s (1996) implementation of epidemic contagion as an excitable media. The cell is the fundamental unit and the scalability of the cell into larger spatial configurations; ultimately what the cell signify, what formed clusters signify and what the lattice of cells as a whole signify  will be discussed in greater depth later 



Figure  The Bare Minimal Specification: Spatial Snapshots. (Note: s, is the percent distribution of non-zero cells in the lattice at initialization; a, is the range of cell values; g is the maximum time for cell changes to continue after a is reached).


What follows is a detailed discussion of the parameters as it relates to tourism and destinations and the empirical justifications for the measurement units chosen (Shian Loong, 2012b).

N, specifies the size of the lattice of square-shaped cells for the CA simulation. For instance a setting of: N=100 means that a square lattice is configured to a dimension of: (100 X 100) units. Taking the cell dimensions as consistent with the human scale of 2 square meters, that would roughly be a space occupied of 6 square feet. Hall (1966) in his interpersonal distance category known as social distance has a lower bound of 4- 7 feet and an upper bound of 7-12 feet. Taking the median at around 5 square feet, we have approximately 2 square meters. Hence N=100 translates to 10,000 units or 10,000 X 2= 20,000 square meters. The resulting lattice space therefore represents an area of 20 km2 of destination space. To put things into perspective 20 km2 is roughly the area of the Shanghai International Tourism and Resorts Zone within the greater Shanghai area; 20 km2 is also roughly the size of Pulau Tuba, Langkawi ; roughly the same size as Nauru, an island nation in the South Pacific, which is also the world�s smallest island nation, covers an area of 21 km2. A newly planned city, called Lusail City in Qatar, the host for the 2022 World Cup, has a built area of 20 km2. Hence a lattice of 10,000 cells is quite sufficient to represent a wide range of destinations. Lattices thus set up for the simulations should be understood as a 2D representations of destinations or tourist precincts; either in the sense of literal destinations, or likely than not, in the sense of meta-destinations. For instance, it is common to have metapopulations of certain species represented as cell clusters within lattices in ecological meta-modeling (Hanski 1998). Strictly speaking, it would not be reasonable to think of lattices as attractions per se, rather one should think of them as spaces populated by constellations of clusters that are themselves attractions. The clusters are themselves tourists who are drawn to an attraction. However at asymptotic limits, all things being equal, the relationship between the size of the destination space and the number of attractions it fosters may not be clear-cut. Higher N would raise the possibility of more attractions, yet smaller destinations spaces may contain within them a surprising number of attractions, as empirical studies have shown an inverse relationship between distance and tourism behavior (Bao and McKercher 2008). Furthermore as N approaches zero, the incidences of attractions is likely to approach zero.

t, specifies the number of iterations for a simulation, which, for the present research context is the number of days passed in a destination�s evolution. Unlike the usual yearly time frame for destination evolutions, it is conjectured that most destinations will exhibit a significant range of spatial features within the span of a few months, even days (e.g. t=100 translates to roughly a period of three months). For instance in the case of event tourism or heritage tourism, a season or passing trend might commence and end within a period of a few months or days. Hence the time denomination for t conveys the idea that evolutionary transitions occur with higher frequency and within months as compared to years. This is especially so with geotagged photos that are sometimes updated almost daily. Such timeframe assumptions would be different from those made by Butler (1980) and Plog (1973; 2001) where the theoretical discussion is premised on years of investment and evolution. Despite this point of departure, t denominated in days instead of years does not interfere nor does it distort the ability of these lifecycle and psychographic models to characterize destination evolution. For changes occurring at a daily scale may be a fractal motif or an evolutionary cycle stated in years or changes occurring at different scales (Samat 2006)

a, specifies the number of categories in a typology of tourists. It can be s thought of as
psychographic categories consistent with the types of tourism experiences. The theoretical and empirical justifications for the upper and lower limit of a will be investigated when we consider the various SPM specifications in the coming sections g, specifies the maximum length of days engaged in tourism behavior, given that the maximum level for a is already attained. Pearce observed that the cutoff point for more exploratory activities was 4 days into the trip from the initial planned itenary (Pearce, 1995, cited in Lau and McKercher 2006). Ashworth (2004), reported the average maximum stay at Mediterranean resorts as 10 days. So give and take we can assume that g falls in the range of 0 to 30 days. Tour packages can lasts up to 3 weeks. In extreme cases, wanderlusts, �join the natives� type of tourism, could last up to 30 days. As a pair, (a,g), operationalizes the idea of the adaptive cycle as a heuristic model (Holling 2001). Holling in turn develops the adaptive cycle from two fundamental ideas: conservation and creativity or innovation (Simon 1974): �Simon's key arguments are that each of the levels of a dynamic hierarchy serves two functions. One is to conserve and stabilize conditions for the faster and smaller levels; the other is to generate and test innovations by experiments occurring within a level. It is this latter, dynamic function we call "an adaptive cycle" (Holling 1986).� Holling (2001, pg 393)

s, specifies the proportion of tourists as a percentage, at the point of the simulations initialization or the degree of tourism distribution at initialization. . Past simulations based on certain recursive rules inform us that it is imperative that simulations be �seeded� with the right kind of entities for this to happen.  s takes the form of an integer and falling within the range of 0 to 1. To capture the developmental nature of destination, we may need to vary s in accordance to N. Distance decay studies (Alonso 1964), gravity models and density function (Papageorgiou 1971) investigations; central place theory (Christaller 1933), informs us that lower densities tend to occur at the periphery of a destination. This accords with distance decay in tourism. Hence to matured destination, or one in a process of decline, a higher value for N needs to be coupled with low values of s. A low N coupled with high s signifies the simulation of a region close to the core (e.g. central business district), tourist precincts, or central destination nodes in a globally destination network.

How is tourists� well-being and destination competitiveness moderated at the spatial dimension? How to infect (�a�) and adaptiveness mechanism (�g�)=> finding enough hosts and having the longest incubation period possible. Consitutional rules and mechanism rules

Results and Interpretations

Looking at the 2D snapshots for the bare minimal, generic SPM, in the Figure 2.8 with s=0.01, it was observed that t<25 was a period of segregation and boundary settings between the tourist and non-tourist population. Spatial clusters began to form and there was always a counter-proportional relation between the two. If the tourist group experienced growth the non-tourist group would experience a dip. Such is the case with so many once serene communities that have been �invaded� by tourist populations (Woosnam, Norman and Ying 2009) attracted by some iconic attraction (van der Borg, Costa and Gotti 1996, Vasiliadis and Kobotis 1999). For t>25, it was observed that greater complexities developing within the clusters and eventually a fusing between the spatial clusters. So that even though the tourists and non-tourists have learned to co-exist as communities, there are still very distinct boundaries within such communities. By t=200, the clusters have mainly fused and the distinction between communities have eroded. The steady state periodicity may represent seasonality effects (Festenberg, Gross and Blasius 2007), creating alternating population distribution in time (Ashworth 2004), even though the spatial densities between the tourists and non-tourists remain roughly at 1:2.


Figure  The Bare Minimal Specification: Intertemporal View. (Note:N=100, s=0.05,a=1,g=1. T=200, where t is the simulation iterations)


For the bare minimum generic SPM, with a, g parameters set at: a=1, g=0, at the limit the simulations will result only in two populations: tourists and non-tourists. In which case, 1-valued cells and 0-values cells corresponds to tourists and non-tourists respectively. If we raise the g value to g=1, the range of cell values in the simulation rises from [0,1] to [0,2]. The resulting emergent cell values can be interpreted as: �non-tourists� (0-valued cells), "allocentrics"(1-valued cells) and "psychocentric"(2- valued cells). The cell values of: 0,1 and 2 allow us to look at the qualitative properties of tourism space in terms of extremes and what would occur if we build destination systems from axioms or rudimentary properties (Epstein and Axtell 1996),  1(allocentrics) and 2(psychocentrics) for the model parameterizations: a=g=1, with N=100, s=0.05 and t=200, the system dichotomizes into two groups. The non-tourists with cell values of 0 are represented by the lighter plot fillings. 

The allocentrics and psychocentrics are essentially behaving as one group throughout the 200 iterations. These two tourists groups are represented by the darker plot fillings. So overall the system is reduces to two basic groups: tourists and non-tourists. When the destination has limited tourism variety (a�!1), it has the effect of fusing the two psychographic groups into one. So we may observe allocentrics and psychocentrics converging on the Maldives or European art cities at the same time, for very different reasons. Thus �instant destinations� can be very successful if destination planners are able to fuse previously varied experiences into a singular experience. This is the essence of theming (Savage, Huang and Chang 2004, Yuen 2005), or fusing of destination identity (Lewicka 2008) or personality Ekinci and Hosany 2006). Hence we have seen casino complexes rebranded as integrated resorts and sun-sea-sand destinations reinvented into getaways. A phenomenon analogous to what some have called, temporal self-similarity of spatial individual-based populations. (Kaitala, Alaja and Ranta 2001). Nevertheless the proportion between non-tourists and tourists remains around 2:1.At the initial stages of the destination evolution (t<25), the two groups move in opposing directions. By t=25 the interactions between two groups have settled into a periodic steady state. It is however a periodicity that is characterized by counter cyclical interactions much like a Volterra (1926) predator-prey model; though not as obvious as in the case for t=10. The intertemporal view  does not display any points of intersection and blending between the groups of tourist and non-tourists throughout the simulation iterations. Though the fluctuations between the two populations are at times countercyclical (t<25) and at times cyclical (t>25). It would seem that, snapshots taken from these two epochs suggest that countercyclical phases corresponds to spatial boundary-setting behavior, while cyclical phases corresponds to variations within established spatial boundaries.  

With the value of g set to g=1, the level of diversity within a destination is dramatically reduced because we have limited the incubation period for the tourism contagion. The lesson here for planners is that time matters, tourists need time to settle in and be a part of the infection or contagion that makes a destination such a draw. With the value of a set to a=1, we are also drastically limiting the tourism experiences, or tourist typology to basically one category. This has repercussions to the spatial form of the destination as the lack of variety at the personality level translates to simplistic repetitive structures at the spatial level.

Hence we conclude that variety matters for destination popularity, and the more varied the visitors at the inception of a destination, the better it would be for destination. Time and history matters, and good things come to those who wait, both for the destination and the visitors it attracts. For flocking to take place a minimal time threshold is needed, with variety introduced into the visitor population as early as possible.


Conclusion and Implications

The paper validates the criterion for destination competitiveness based on congruence between visitors� mindset and the spatial characteristics of destinations. At the spatial, geographical level, an attribute-based explanation for destination competitiveness makes sense. But if destinations were to be thought of as places that elicit meaning for individuals, estimations of a destination�s �flocking� capacity becomes crucial, especially with the current interests in social networks.

The bare minimal specification of the simulation, demonstrates that, given rules that link individual visitor well-being to majority-congruence, tourists tend to flock together, providing an explanation for destination resilience that transcends physical attributes. Taking view that rules are codified information, the simulations demonstrate how asymmetric information at the demand-level may nonetheless be translated to symmetric patterns at supply-level. Flocking phenomenon at the global, destination-level speaks to both the self-organization process leading to symmetry between minds and space and the importance of setting in motion the right rules. Setting the right rules is a part of adaptive management that seeks to navigate the fine line separating order from chaos.

This requires a methodological and axiological shift. It constitutes a methodological shift because processes involving transitions and convergences become the focal point. Emphasizing phase transitions instead of states in the destination system. It is an axiological shift because it is imperative that adaptation takes place, instead of pure control. Adaptive management takes its cue from nature, where it becomes common place that countless adjustments be undertaken to adapt and steer the destination within a �fitness landscape� that is constantly changing.

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