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q\��iq�\\\d\\\\\?�?��bl\\\��\\\\����������������������������������������������������������������������\\\\\\\\\�	 �:	Comparison of the phenolic profile, inhibition of enzymes associated with type-2 diabetes and hypertension, and Fe2+-induced lipid peroxidation in rat� pancreas by Plum and Hogweed leaves extracts
Stephen Adeniyi Adefegha1, Sunday Idowu Oyeleye1,2*, Felix Abayomi Dada3, Opeyemi Babatunde Ogunsuyi1,2, Ganiyu Oboh1, Aline Augusti Boligon4
1Department of Biochemistry, Federal University of Technology, Akure, P.M.B. 704, Akure 340001, Nigeria
2Department of Biomedical Technology, Federal University of Technology, Akure, P.M.B. 704, Akure 340001, Nigeria
3Department of Science Laboratory, Federal Polytechnic Ede, Km. 2 Poly Road, Ede 231, Nigeria
4Department of Chemistry, Federal University of Santa Maria, AV. Roraima 1000, Santa Maria 845, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil. 

*Corresponding author e-mail:oyeleye.idowu@yahoo.com, sioyeleye@futa.edu.ng
Tel: +234(0)8035123539










Abstract
	Inhibition �-amylase, �-glucosidase and angiotensin-I converting enzyme (ACE) are therapeutic approach to the management of type-2 diabetes (TD2) and hypertension, and phenolic-rich plants have shown promising potentials. Plum and Hogweed leaves are widely used across the world in managing TD2 without vivid scientific basis. This study investigated and compared the phenolic profile, �-amylase, �-glucosidase, ACE and Fe2+-induced lipid peroxidation in rat  pancreas inhibitory effects of aqueous extracts from Plum and Hogweed leaves.: HPLC analyses revealed the presence of gallic, caffeic and p-coumaric acids, and cyanidin, catechin, quercetin, luteolin and kaempferol, with highest quantification found in Hogweed leaf except for gallic, and kaempferol which was only detected in Plum leaf. The IC50 values shown that the extract from Hogweed exhibited higher 5��-amylase (IC50 = 17.95 �g/mL), 5��-glucosidase (IC50 = 13.69 �g/mL), ACE (IC50 = 14.16 �g/mL), and Fe2+-induced lipid peroxidation (IC50 = 81.58 �g/mL) inhibitory potentials when compared with that of Plum [5��-amylase (IC50 = 25.89 �g/mL),  5��-glucosidase (IC50 = 18.36 �g/mL), ACE (IC50 = 22.11 �g/mL) and Fe2+-induced lipid peroxidation (IC50 = 107.54 �g/mL)]. These effects may be possible mechanisms by which these plants could be used in the prevention/management of TD2 and some allied complications such as hypertension. However, clinical and in vivo studies should be done to establish this claim. 
Keywords: Medicinal plants, P. domestica, B. procumbens, Polyphenols, �-Amylase, �-Glucosidase, ACE, Antioxidant






Introduction
	The application of plants in the management of human ailment is as ancient as man himself. Plants are being used in all forms, including decoction, infusion etc. (Petrovska, 2012). Various parts including the leaves, stem, bark and roots are included in the search for new drug discovery, and development of novel bioactive compounds that have little or side effect when compared to several synthetic drugs and are being explored through phytochemical and pharmacological screening (Akkarachiyasit et al. 2010; Asuk et al. 2015). 
Oxidative stress is one of the major pathophysiology of several human ailments, including type-2 diabetes (TD2) (Johansen et al. 2005). Inhibition of �-amylase and �-glucosidase has become an accepted approach in managing TD2, as their activities convert a starch molecule into glucose, thereby making glucose readily absorbed into the blood stream, in which its persistent increase in concentration, otherwise known as hyperglycemia, is a major risk factor of TD2 (Kawahito et al. 2009). Furthermore, experimental studies have shown that hypertension is a notable complication of TD2, which could occur through activation of the rennin-angiotensin system (RAS) and angiotensin-I production (Ademiluyi et al. 2016). However, the conversion of angiotensin-I to angiotensin-II by the activity of angiotensin-1 converting enzyme (ACE) plays a key role in the development of high blood pressure (also known as hypertension) and other cardiovascular diseases as well as erectile and kidney dysfunction (Oboh  et al. 2015; Oboh et al. 2016). Therefore, inhibition of ACE could be a therapeutic point for the treatment/management of hypertension. More so, prevention of angiotensin II production is beneficial because it�s increase level contribute to insulin insensitivity of the peripheral tissues (Ademiluyi et al. 2016). Although, synthetic drugs/inhibitors such as acarbose for �-amylase and �-glucosidase, and captopril for ACE are widely in use, but they also inflict some side effects. The shortcomings of these synthetic inhibitors therefore, give rise to continuously search for safe and natural inhibitors with minimal or no side effects. However, phenolic-rich plant/foods offer protection against TD2 and attendant complications such as hypertension (Ademiluyi et al. 2016; Adefegha et al. 2016).
	Hogweed (Boerhavia procumbens) is a perennial plant that is often seen as a weed (Akkarachiyasit et al. 2010). The roots and leaves are used in various forms in treating gastrointestinal, skin, respiratory and urogenital problems (Debasmita et al. 2015). Plum (Prunus domestica), often referred to as European plum; is a deciduous or evergreen tree. The fruits are mainly consumed fresh, but also processed into products such as pulps and jams and it is known for its organoleptic characteristics (Miloaevi et al. 2013). In Western Nigeria, the leaves of Hogweed and Plum are used separately or in combination with other plants for the management/treatment of TD2 by traditional medicine practitioners, however with little scientific evidence of mechanism of actions. In view of the aforementioned, this study investigated and compared the phenolic composition and the effects of the aqueous extracts from Plum and Hogweed leaves on the starch hydrolyzing enzymes (5��-amylase and 5��-glucosidase) activities and Fe2+ induce oxidative stress in isolated pancreas homogenate - in vitro.
MATERIALS ND METHODS
Chemicals and Reagents
	All chemicals used in this study were of analytical grade and glass-distilled water was used. Kenxin refrigerated centrifuge (KX3400C, KENXIN Intl. Co., Hong Kong) was used. UV/visible spectrophotometer (Jenway 6305 model, Bibby Scientific, Staffordshine, United Kingdom) was used to measure the absorbance, 
Sample collection and preparation
	Plum (Prunus domestica) and Hogweed (Boerhavia procumbens) leaves were freshly harvested from the Federal University of Technology, Botanical garden, Akure. Authentication was done by Mr Shorungbe, Biology Department, Federal University of Technology, Akure Nigeria. The leaves were washed with distilled water and air dried, which was pulverized using laboratory blender. Ten gram of each pulverized sample were soaked in 100 mL of distilled water and shake for 6 h using orbital shaker. Thereafter, the extracts were filtered using Whatman no. 1 filter paper (Whatman, Maidstone, United Kingdom) and further centrifuged to obtain clear supernatant which was freeze-dried with the aid of freeze-dryer. One gram of each dried extract was then re-dissolved in 100 mL of distilled water and kept at 4 �C for subsequent assays (Adefegha and Oboh, 2011). The freeze dried extracts were used for phenolic characterization using HPLC-DAD.
Spectrophotometric quantification of total phenolic (phenol and flavonoid) content
	The total phenol and flavonoid contents of the extracts were determined using spectrophotometric methods (Adefegha and Oboh, 2011). The total phenol and flavonoid contents were subsequently calculated as gallic acid equivalent (GAE) and quercetin equivalent (QE) respectively. 
Quantification of phenolic compounds by high performance liquid chromatogram couple with diode array detector (HPLC-DAD)
	The phenolic profile of the samples was done by a reverse phase chromatography analysis under gradient conditions using the method described by Adedayo et al. (2015) with slight modifications. Chromatography peaks were confirmed by comparing its retention time with those of reference standards and by DAD spectra (200 to 500 nm).
Enzymes (�-Amylase, �-glucosidase and ACE) inhibition assays
	The �-amylase and �-glucosidase inhibitory effects of the extracts were determined (Ademiluyi et al. 2016). The ability of the extracts to inhibit ACE activity was determined by the measurement the hippuric acid (Bz-Gly) produced from hippuryl-Lhistidyl-L-leucine (HHL, 8.33 mM) (Ademiluyi et al. 2016). The percentage enzyme inhibitory activity (A) of the extract was subsequently calculated using the formula below; 
A= [ABSref - ABSsample]/ABSref � 100 	 	(1)
where ABSref is absorbance of reference and ABSsample is absorbance of sample.
Preparation of Pancreatic homogenates and lipid peroxidation assay
	Pancreas homogenate was prepared according to the method of Belle et al. (2004) and lipid peroxidation assay was determined using the method of Shodehinde et al. (2017). The thiobarbituric acid reactive species (TBARS) produced was measured at 532 nm and subsequently calculated as the percent of MDA (malondialdehyde) produced (% Control) using the MDA standard curve.
Antioxidant (radical scavenging and Fe2+ chelation abilities, and reducing property) assays.
	The free radical scavenging ability of the extracts against 1, 1-diphenyl�2-picrylhydrazyl radical (DPPH*) was evaluated as described by Gyamfi et al. (1999). The Fe2+ chelating ability was determined using the method of Puntel et al. (2005). The reducing property of the extracts was determined by assessing its ability to reduce FeCl3 solution as described by Pulido et al. (2000). The radical scavenging and Fe chelating abilities of the extract were calculated as in Eq. 1, while the reducing property was subsequently calculated and expressed in equivalent to ascorbic acid activity.
Data analysis
	The results of three replicate experiments were pooled and expressed as a mean�standard deviation (SD). One-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) was used to analyze the mean and the post hoc treatment was performed using a Duncan multiple test. Significance was accepted at P < 0.05. Extract concentration causing 50% effectiveness (IC50) were calculated with GraphPad Prism version 5.00 for Windows.
Results
	The total phenol content of the extracts using the Folin Ciocalteau method is reported as gallic acid equivalent (GAE) while the total flavonoid contents are reported as quercetin equivalent (QE) The total phenol content in Hogweed leaves was significantly (P < 0.05) higher than that of plum leaves. In a similar manner, the extract from Hogweed leaves had higher total flavonoid content than that of Plum leaves (Table 1). The HPLC-DAD phenolic profiles of Hogweed and plum leaves revealed the presence of some phenolic compounds which were calculated on dry weight basis (Table 2 and Fig. 1). Both leaves contained cyanidin, gallic acid, catechin, caffeic acid, �-coumaric acid, quercetin, and luteolin, but in higher quantity in Hogweed than Plum. However, Plum leaf contained Kaempeferol in addition. 
	The effect of the extracts on 5��-amylase, 5��-glucosidase and ACE activities are presented in Fig. 2A, 2B, 2C respectively, and the IC50 values are listed in Table 3. The result showed that the extracts inhibited 5��-amylase and 5��-glucosidase (0   40 �g/mL), and ACE (0   62.50 �g/mL) activities in a concentration-dependent manner. However, the extract from Hogweed leaves had a higher inhibitory effect on 5��-amylase and 5��-glucosidase activity than that from Plum leaves. Likewise, Hogweed leaf extract inhibited ACE activity better than Plum leaf extract.
	The inhibition of Fe2+-induced lipid peroxidation in isolated rat pancreas by the studied extracts was investigated and the result is presented in Fig 3A. The result shows that the extracts inhibited Fe2+-induced lipid peroxidation in rat pancreas in a concentration dependent manner (0 � 100 �g/mL). However, extract from Hogweed leaf had the highest inhibition. As presented in Fig. 3B, both extracts scavenged DPPH radical in a concentration-dependent manner. Hogweed leaf extract had higher DPPH radical scavenging ability when compared with that of Plum. The result of Fe chelation ability (Fig. 3C) also revealed that Hogweed leaves exhibited higher Fe2+ chelation ability when compared to Plum. Furthermore, study of ferric reducing antioxidant power (FRAP) of the extracts, reported as ascorbic acid equivalent (AAE) showed that Hogweed leaf extract exhibited higher reducing power when compared to than Plum (Table 2).


Discussion	
	Reports have shown that phenolic compounds contributes to the medicinal properties of plants and plant-based food against degenerative diseases (Boyer and Liu 2004; Oboh et al. 2010), by lowering cellular oxidative stress; via radicals scavenging and metals chelating abilities as well as activation of antioxidant enzymes (Muthiah 2012; Molehin et al. 2014). In this study, we determined the total phenolic (phenol and flavonoid) contents of Hogweed and Plum leaf extracts. As presented in Table 1, extract from Hogweed leaf had higher phenolic (phenol and flavonoid) contents than that of Plum leaves. Furthermore, due to the fact that there are limitations in the use of colorimetric methods in the quantification of phenolic contents (Sagdic et al. 2011; Zengin et al. 2014), we further analyze for the phenolic profile of the leaves using HPLC-DAD, in order to have a clearer qualitative and quantitative distribution of polyphenols present in the studied leaves. The HPLC-DAD analysis confirm the presence of caffeic, p-coumaric and gallic acid, and catechin, luteolin, quercetin, cyanidin and kaempferol, with higher amount found in Hogweed leaf when compared to Plum leaf which was only richer in gallic acid and kaempferol. The presence of these phenolic compounds in the studied samples could be responsible for their use in the management of TD2.
	During digestion, 5��-amylase breaks down starch into disaccharides while 5��-glucosidase further breaks down the di- to mono-saccharide; glucose. Inhibition of these enzymes could reduce the amount of glucose absorbed into the blood stream, therefore, could serve as a control point of reducing hyperglycemia especially in TD2 (Adefegha et al. 2016). Furthermore, the inhibition of �-glucosidase activity has also been reported to alleviate the glycated hemoglobin level in diabetic patients and causes a significant reduction in the incidence of chronic vascular complication (Sharifuddin et al. 2015. The 5��-amylase and 5��-glucosidase inhibitory effects of the extract could be part of the mechanism of actions in the management of TD2, which could be linked with the phenolic compounds (Table 1 and 2). Phenolic compounds, including, cyanidin, apigenin and luteolin have been reported to be a stronger inhibitor of �-amylase and �-glucosidase activities (Kim et al. 2000; Akkarachiyasit et al. 2010). This study agrees with earlier reports on positive correlations established between the 5��-amylase and 5��-glucosidase inhibitory effects and phenolic contents of plant extracts from tropical spices (Adefegha et al. 2016).
	The ACE inhibitory effects of several plant extracts have been reported, however, to our knowledge, there is no report on the effects of Hogweed and Plum leaves on ACE activity. Hence, the effect of the studied plant ACE activity was investigated and compared. The action of ACE activity converts angiotensin I (a decapeptide vasodilator) to angiotensin II (an octapeptide vasoconstrictor) and further inactivates bradykinin (a vasodilator and hypotensive peptide which, if left unchecked, could lead to hypertension; hence, inhibition of ACE is a good therapeutic approach to managing hypertension (Ademiluyi et al. 2016), and plant extracts rich in phenolic compounds especially flavonoid have been reported to inhibit ACE activity (Irondi et al. 2016). Although, both extracts inhibited ACE activities, but Hogweed extract proved to be best ACE inhibitor, which could be as a result of its richness in flavonoid content (Table 1) most especially luteolin (Table 2). This could be supported by the report Guerrero et al. 2012), that luteolin had strongest ACE inhibitory activity when compared to other phenolic compounds in their study. Nonetheless, the synergistic effects of other phenolics which are mostly high in Hogweed could also be contributing factor of the higher ACE inhibitory effect of Hogweed.
	Lipid peroxidation is a reaction process between the unsaturated lipid and oxygen-derived free radical that produced a wide range of oxidation products such as malonyaldehyde (MDA), a highly reactive cytotoxic compound (Perluigi et al. 2012). In this study, incubation of the isolated pancreas homogenate with Fe2+ solution causes an increase in the MDA content. Reports on the association between diabetes and oxidative stress have been well documented, and transitional metals such as Fe (iron) in its free form in the extracellular circulation has been reported as common/major initiator of lipid peroxidation; a risk factor in the pathogenesis of diabetes via impairment of insulin action/insensitivity and elevation of the complication incidence (Swaminathan et al. 2007; Asmat et al. 2015). However, the addition of the studied plant extracts inhibited MDA production in a concentration dependent manner and extract from Hogweed had the highest inhibitory effect which could be colligated with higher phenolic contents. These findings agree with several reports on the lipid peroxidation inhibitory effect of phenolic compounds in both in vitro and in vivo models (Omoba et al. 2015; Akinyemi et al. 2017).
	To elucidate the mechanism(s) behind the lipid peroxidation inhibition and antioxidant properties of the studied samples� extracts, we further determined the ability of the extracts to scavenging of radical, chelate Fe2+ and reduce Fe2+ to Fe3+ donate electron/hydrogen atom. As observed in this study, radical scavenging, Fe chelation and ferric reducing abilities of the studied extracts could be among the rationale behind the inhibition of Fe2+-induced lipid peroxidation. This report is in line with several studies that the radical scavenging, chelation and reduction of metals by phenolic compounds could prevent the formation of lipid peroxidation and oxidative stress (Yakubu et al. 2014; Adefegha et al 2016). The significant (P<0.05) difference noticed in the antioxidant properties of the extracts, follows the trend observed in the total phenol and flavonoid contents. This agrees with previous reports on the relationship between phenolic (especially flavonoids) content of plant materials and their antioxidant capabilities (Michalak 2006; Yakubu et al. 2014). 
Conclusion
	The inhibition of �-amylase, �-glucosidase and ACE activities and Fe2+-induced lipid peroxidation of the studied plants could be part of the possible mechanism of action behind their antidiabetic and antihypertensive agents in folklore. However, Hogweed leaf exhibited better inhibitory effect when compared with Plum. These effects may thus be partly linked to its higher total phenolic contents. However, clinical trial and toxicology studies of these plants are required.
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Table 1: Total phenol and flavonoid contents, and ferric reducing antioxidant properties (FRAP) of Hogweed and Plum leaves extracts.
Sample			Total Phenol 	 	Total Flavonoid	   FRAP					 (mg GAE/g)               (mg QAE/g)		(mg AAE/g)
Hogweed		34.10 � 0.13a		16.12 � 0.12a		28.14 � 0.04a
Plum			20.03 � 0.09b		12.11� 0.11b		15.16 � 0.07b
Values represent means � standard deviation of triplicate readings.
Values with the different superscript letter along the same column are significantly different at p<0.05













Table 2: Phenolics and flavonoids composition 
			Hogweed Leaf		Plum leaf		LOD		LOQ
Compounds		(mg/g)	 		(mg/g)			�g/mL		�g/mL
Cyanidin		4.91�0.02a		4.65�0.01a		0.027		0.089
Gallic acid		0.58�0.01b		0.79�0.03b		0.019		0.063
Catechin 		5.03�0.04a		4.61�0.01a		0.008		0.027
Caffeic acid		5.27�0.03c		4.68�0.01a		0.030		0.102
p-Coumaric		0.31�0.02d		0.23�0.01c		0.021		0.078
Quercetin		6.16�0.01e		4.62 � 0.03a		0.025		0.072
Kaempferol		-			0.80�0.01b		0.020		0.067	
Luteolin		13.04�0.01f		3.01�0.02d		0.016		0.061
Results are expressed as mean � standard deviations (SD) of three determinations. Averages followed by different letters differ by Tukey test at p < 0.05.











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					Plum 				Hogweed
�-Amylase activities			25.89�0.02a			17.95�0.02b
�-Glucosidase activities		18.36�0.02a			13.69�0.03b
ACE activities				22.11�0.02a			14.16�0.05b
Fe2+-induced lipid peroxidation	107.54�3.11a			81.58�2.09b
DPPH radical				0.90�0.03a			0.54�0.06b	
Fe2+ chelation				3.95�0.01a			2.54�0.01b	
Values represent means � standard deviation of triplicate readings.
Values with the different superscript letter along the same row are significantly different at p<0.05




















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