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The volleyball spike is one of the most explosive movements in volleyball and is frequently used to end a rally and earn a point. The ability to execute a high velocity volleyball spike is a critical component of a successful volleyball offense because it decreases the ability of the defender to keep the ball in play [1,2].  Reported spiked ball velocities (SBV) range from 25 to 28 m/s for male players [2,3]and 13.5 to 18.1 m/s for female players [1,4,5]. In order to execute a successful high velocity volleyball spike, the athlete must coordinate a number of complex movement patterns (Figure 1) such as the approach, the vertical jump, the backswing, and follow threw [6].  The relative contribution of these movement patterns to SBV has been the focus of several sport scientists.
Ferris et al. [1] and Forthomme et al. [2] investigated the relationships between SBV and physical, morphological, and muscular characteristics in volleyball players. In a group of female collegiate volleyball players, Ferris et al. determined that arm-extension torque at the highest speed (270 deg/s) and standing reach were significantly correlated with SBV, leading these authors to suggest that the strength of the shoulder extensors may be the dominant alterable physiological variable related to SBV.
Forthomme et al. [2] examined the relationship between isokinetic parameters of the dominant shoulder and elbow and SBV using Division I and Division II male volleyball players. They reported a significant relationship between SBV and maximal strength of the dominant shoulder internal rotators and the dominant elbow flexors and extensors in the concentric mode, particularly at the lowest isokinetic speed (60 deg/s). Additionally, a positive relationship was found between SBV and the height at which the athlete made contact with the ball, body mass index, and time dedicated to a strength training program. 
Newell and Lauder [4] investigated the relationships between movement kinematics of the upper body and SBV for elite and club players. During spike-performance tests, elite volleyball players exhibited a 34% higher ball velocity compared to club volleyball players. They determined the most significant kinematic variables predicting SBV were the forward-swing phase, hand velocity, and wrist velocity. Small differences in hand and wrist velocities between groups were attributed to differences in the forward-swing phase of the volleyball spike namely smaller and slower rotations at the shoulder and less forward rotation of the trunk for the club volleyball players. While Newell and Lauder [4] began to examine the contribution of trunk-rotation variables to SBV, their study was limited to the analysis of upper torso rotation about the x-axis and did not consider rotation of the torso about the y-axis.
Coleman et al. [3] began to address the lack of information about the role of y-axis torso rotation on SBV with a study on elite male volleyball players. Spikes were filmed and analyzed from games at an international competition.  Rotation about the y-axis was evaluated by measuring the shoulder-hip angle (degrees) and maximum shoulder-hip angular velocity (rad s-1) (Figure 2). The shoulder-hip angle was defined as the angle between the horizontal plane projections of the lines joining the two glenohumeral and the two hip joints. All of the spikers were right handed so the mean negative shoulder-hip value (-46.6� � 2.9) indicated rightward rotations of the torso during the spiking. Neither the peak shoulder-hip angle nor the associated maximum shoulder-hip angular velocity (13.5 rad s-1 � 1.66) was significantly related to SBV. Coleman et al. [3] argued that this lack of significance may be a reflection of directionality of the spikes filmed in his study.  Since the film for analysis was taken during game play there was no control over the directionality of the spikes. Coleman et al. [3] further reasoned that most of the spikes analyzed were �cross court spikes� which may not involve the same amount of rotation as a �down the line spike� would.
Sport scientists investigating other rotational sport skills have reported that rotation about the y-axis is related to the velocity imparted to balls [3,7,8]. Wagner et al. [9] examined shoulder and hip rotation angles and velocities among handball, tennis, and volleyball players. Shoulder and hip rotational velocities for the volleyball spikers were reported as 640 and 370 deg/s respectively. In addition, maximal shoulder and hip angles were found to be -64� and -48� at the conclusion of the backswing. Wagner et al. [9] however did not report on SBV. Currently there is a gap in the literature regarding the influence of shoulder-hip separation as well as shoulder and hip rotational velocities on SBV. Furthermore, it is unclear if the direction of the spike, down-the-line (DL) or diagonally across-court (DAC), influences the contribution of the shoulder and hip rotation to SBV. The purpose of this study was to examine the relationship between peak shoulder-hip separation angle (PSHSA), peak shoulder rotational velocity (PSRV), peak hip rotational velocity (PHRV), and spiked ball velocity. Currently there is no scientific literature regarding SBV and spike direction, therefore a secondary purpose was to investigate PSHSA, PSRV, and PHRV for down-the-line and diagonal across-court spikes. Based on the comments of Coleman et al. [3], we hypothesized that DL spikes will have significantly greater PSHSA, PSRV, as well as PHRV, resulting in greater SBV than DAC spikes.
METHODS
Experimental Approach to the Problem
This study investigated the kinematic characteristics of Division I female collegiate volleyball players executing volleyball spikes. A cross-sectional, descriptive design was used to quantify the kinematic characteristics for DL and DAC volleyball spikes in a laboratory setting.  Three-dimensional motion capture analysis was used to quantify SBV, PSHSA, PSRV, and PHRV for the two spiking actions. 

Subjects
Fourteen National Collegiate Athletic Association Division I female volleyball players participated in this study. Players with acute or chronic injuries that interfered with the player�s ability to execute a volleyball spike were excluded. Data was collected during the volleyball off-season. Players were asked to arrive at the laboratory in a rested and normally hydrated state having not eaten during the previous three hours. All participants signed written informed consent prior to testing. Approval for the study was given by the Intuitional Review Board from the University of Utah. 

(Table 1 about here)

Procedures
Air Displacement Plethysmography. Body composition was assessed using Air Displacement Plethysmography (Bod Pod, Life Measurement Inc., Concord, CA) in the PEAK Health and Fitness laboratory at the University of Utah. Equipment was calibrated prior to testing according to manufacturer�s recommendations [10,11]. Participants were asked to arrive at the laboratory in a rested and normally hydrated state. Participants were required to wear a tight fitting swimsuit and swim cap during the test. Prior to entering the Bod Pod, the participant�s height was measured within 0.1 cm using a stadiometer; body weight was measured within 0.01 kg on a calibrated electric scale. The participant then sat comfortably inside the Bod Pod chamber while computerized pressure sensors determined the amount of air displaced. The body fat percentages were calculated using Siri�s (1961) equation. Other derived variables included fat free mass (kg), fat mass (kg), and body mass index which was calculated as body mass (kg) divided by height2 (m). The Bod Pod has been determined to be a valid and reliable tool for predicting body fat percentage [12-14]. 

Motion Capture Analysis. Three-dimensional motion capture analysis was used to examine the kinematics of the volleyball spike. To facilitate analyzing limb motions, each participant wore a sport pro bra, fitted shorts, and a total of 21 reflective markers (19 mm). Reflective markers were placed on the following anatomical landmarks: the right and left acromion process; the right and left inferior angle of the scapula; the right and left medial border of the scapula; the 7th cervical vertebra; the sternal notch, the xiphoid process, the right lateral epicondyle of the humerus; the right medial epicondyle of the humerus; upper medial shaft of the right of the humerus; right medial forearm; right wrist lateral styloid process and right wrist medial styloid process; the right hand 3rd MCP joint; the right and left anterior superior iliac spine (ASIS); the right and left posterior superior iliac spine (PSIS); and the V sacral. The reflective markers were placed on the participants prior to their warm-up.
The markers� movements during each spike were analyzed with a 10 Camera Raptor-E�Digital Real Time Camera System (Motion Analysis Corporation, Santa Rosa, CA). Kinematic data were collected at a sampling rate of 120 Hz and raw data were first processed to eliminate any noise artifact. All kinematic coordinate data were low pass filtered at 6 Hz using a 2nd-order zero lag Butterworth digital filter and were then processed using motion analysis software. The motion capture analyses were completed in the Sports Medicine Research Laboratory located at the University of Utah. The three-dimensional motion capture analysis measured shoulder and hip rotational velocities  (degrees/second) during each volleyball spike, as well as the degrees of separation (degrees) between the shoulder and hip at the conclusion of the backswing [5,7,8,15].
The motion capture analysis was also used to measure the velocity of the spiked volley balls (SBV) in meters per second. An official size and weight Baden� Lexum� Comp VX450 volleyball was used for the volleyball spike tests. Three reflective markers were placed on the front surface of the ball. A recent investigation suspended the volleyball from the ceiling using a rope and the ball was released upon contact [16,17]. We elected to use the SPIKE IT� (JumpUSA, Sunnyvale, CA), in order to allow the athletes to adjust the height of the ball allowing the athletes to place the ball at an optimal height. In addition the SPIKE IT� was used to decrease variability between sets that may occur using a setter. Prior to testing, the participants were allowed to adjust the height of the ball in the SPIKE IT�, based on their preference and this height was measured and maintained for all spikes. The SPIKE IT� was placed near the center of a simulated net on the same side from which the player performed the volleyball spikes. Additionally, in order to catch the spiked balls and protect the motion capture analysis cameras, netting was strategically positioned. The DL and DAC targets were placed immediately behind the capture netting.
	Participants were instructed to engage in a 5 minute self-selected warm-up before performing the volleyball spikes.  Following warm-up, the players were instructed to perform a 3-4 step approach and spike the volleyball with maximum force and speed using their dominant arm. Participants performed 2 sets of 10 spikes (20 total) with 30 seconds recovery between spikes and 5 minutes rest between each set. The order of spiking direction (DL and DAC) for each set was randomized. The directionality for the DL and DAC spikes for right and left-handed participants are illustrated in Figures 2 and 3. A spike was repeated if the target was not hit. The first 3 spikes from each direction were considered to be practice trials and the remaining 7 trials were retained for data analysis.

(Figure 1, 2, 3 and 4 about here)
Statistical Analysis
Data are presented as mean and SD. Four paired t-tests for matched pairs design were used to determine if there was a difference in SBV, PSHSA, PSRV, and PHRV for the two different spiking directions. Pearson Product Moment Correlation Coefficient (r) analyses were used to determine if SBV was related to PSHSA, PSRV, and PHRV for both DL and DAC spikes. The alpha level was set at 0.05 to denote statistical significance. The analyses were performed using PASW Statistical software (Version 18.0, Chicago, IL, USA).

RESULTS  
A total of 14 female collegiate volleyball athletes, between the ages of 18-30 years with collegiate playing experience of 3.2 � 1.4 years, completed the study. Six players were outside hitters, 3 were middle blockers, 3 were setters, and 2 were liberos. Anthropometric measures are presented in Table 1. All but one of the players was right-handed. Stability of the 7 SBV trials for both DL and DAC spikes were determined by using a two-way factor mixed (direction and trials fixed) repeated measures factorial ANOVA. The ANOVA results indicated that the mean values for the 7 SBV trials for both DL and DAC were stable and not statistically different from one another (F = 1.06, p = .394; F = .426, p = .859), respectively. Descriptive statistics and level of significance for the comparison of SBV, PSHSA, PSRV, and PHRV between the DL and DAC spikes are presented in Table 2. Statistical significance was observed for SBV between DL and DAC spikes. Statistically significant differences were also seen for PSHSA between DL and DAC spikes.
The Pearson Product Moment Correlation Coefficients and level of significance for the comparisons between SBV and the other variables are presented in Table 3. Moderate positive correlation coefficients were observed between SBV and PSHSA at the top of the back swing phase, PSRV during the forward swing phase, and PHRV during the forward swing phase for the DAC spikes. A multiple regression analysis (see Table 4) predicting SBV from the rotational variables for DAC spikes resulted in a statistically significant multiple R� values. The most important predictor of SBV was PSHSA. Additionally, a low to moderate positive correlation was observed between SBV and PSHSA at the top of the back swing phase for the DL spikes. A multiple regression analysis (Table 4) for DL spike was not statistically significant.

(Table 2 about here)

The Pearson Product Moment Correlation Coefficients and level of significance for the comparisons between SBV and the other variables are presented in Table 3. Moderate positive correlation coefficients were observed between SBV and PSHSA at the top of the back swing phase, PSRV during the forward swing phase, and PHRV during the forward swing phase for the DAC spikes. A multiple regression analysis using rotational variables resulted in statistically significant multiple R� value (Table 4). The most important predictor of SBV was PSHSA for DAC SBV. Additionally, a low to moderate positive correlation was observed between SBV and PSHSA at the top of the back swing phase for the DL spikes. A multiple regression analysis for DL spike was not statistically significant (Table 4).
DISCUSSION
This is the first study to examine the relationship between peak shoulder hip separation angle (PSHSA) and spiked ball velocity for both down-the-line (DL) and diagonal across-court (DAC) spikes. The current study revealed significant relationships between SBV and PSHSA, PSRV, and PHRV for the DAC spikes. Although there was a modest correlation between SBV and PSHSA for the DL spikes, it was not statistically significant and the correlation coefficients for the other DL rotational variables and SBV were very low. This study also demonstrated SBV to be significantly faster for DAC spikes (17.54 � 2.35 vs. 15.97 � 2.36 m/s). Reeser et al. [5] reported no difference in SBV for cross-body and down the line spikes (15.7 � 1.7 vs. 15.5 � 2.0 m/s) for female collegiate volleyball players. Our observation is different than reported by Ferris et al. [1] and Newel and Lauder [4], who also reported SBV in female volleyball players. Ferris et al. limited observations to cross-court spikes and reported higher SBVs compared to those found in the current study (18.1 � 1.77 m/s). The mean SBVs reported by Newel and Lauder [4] was 18.1 � 1.0 m/s for the elite players and 13.5 � 0.9 m/s while executing cross-court spikes. In comparison our female collegiate volleyball players achieved a DAC SBV of 15.97 � 2.36 m/s. These differences in SBV for DAC spike may be partially explained due to playing status (elite and club vs. collegiate). In addition participant physical characteristics and study designs may also explain differences between studies. For example, Ferris et al. [1] had players spike the ball from the off hand whereas we had players spike the ball from the SPIKE IT�. These differences may have increased the variability between each volleyball spike.  In addition, we expected to see greater SBVs for DAC spikes because of the greater PSHSA. However, players may have hesitated to hit the ball with maximal force due to camera positioning the lab which may explain the difference in SBV between DAC and DL spikes. 
The volleyball players in the current study were older (20.9 � 2.8 years) than the NCAA � D1 National Collegiate Athletic Association players (19.5 � 1.1 years) in the Ferris et al. [1] study. The volleyball players in the current study were also taller (181.6 � 7.7 cm vs. 176.7 � 4.6 cm), and heavier (72.9 � 12.5 kg vs. 69.7� 10.8 kg) than reported by Ferris et al. [1]. Even though the volleyball players in the current study were heavier and taller, our data revealed that the volleyball players in this study still possessed similar body fat percentage reported by Ferris et al. (22.0 � 6.3 % vs. 22.2 � 5.0%). There was no reporting of demographic information in Newell and Lauder�s [4] study, and therefore, a direct comparison was not possible. The small differences in the participant physical characteristics are unlikely to explain the differences in DAC SBVs between the current study and other reported DAC SBVs, but there certainly are other player characteristics that could account for differences in SBV between groups of participants.
Study design features are another potential explanation for the lower DAC SBVs for the current study. Utilization of a 10 camera motion analysis system for the current study was only possible if data were collected in a laboratory setting and not in a gymnasium, as was the case for Newell and Lauder [4], and Ferris et al. [1]. The coverage area of the cameras in the relatively small laboratory may have prevented players from performing the spikes as they would while playing on a court in a gymnasium. Typically, when DAC spikes are executed, the player leaves the court and begins their 3-4 step approach from outside the court, allowing more distance to develop momentum in preparation for the spike jump. Hsieh and Christiansen [18] have reported that higher horizontal momentum results in a higher vertical jump, which in turn contributes to a higher SBV. Furthermore, in the current study, the players did not spike a set; rather, the ball position was fixed with a SPIKE IT�, a training device that allows participants to adjust the ball height and position so that a stationary ball was spiked. It is possible the SPIKE IT� apparatus interfered with the spiking, accounting for a lower SBV for the DAC spike than the DL spike. In addition, players may not have hit the ball with maximal force for DAC spikes due to camera positioning which were in the line of sight. 
Another factor related to the laboratory setting was that during the DAC spikes, some players were anxious about hitting the ball into the cameras. Because of the space configurations in the laboratory, the DAC target area was close to where the cameras were mounted. Although protective netting was in front of the cameras, for the DAC spikes, the cameras were in the line of sight of the players, which was not the case for the DL spikes. Consequently, some players may have sacrificed velocity for control on their DACs, contributing to the slower mean DAC SBV observed.
	In addition to examining DAC SBV separately from DL SBV, the current study was the first to analyze rotational variables about the global y-axis during spikes executed by female volleyball players. The correlation coefficients for PSHSA and SBV, particularly for the DAC spikes, provide some support for the importance of PSHSA at the top of the back swing as a contributor to SBV. Myers et al. [7], when examining the golf swing, also reported  that increased shoulder-hip separation at the top of the back swing is a more important contributor to ball velocity than are the magnitudes of either the shoulder or hip rotational velocities.
According to kinetic link theory, in order to produce maximum velocity, the force produced by hip rotation must be correctly timed with the sequential movements involving the upper torso and arm so that optimal velocity is imparted to the ball [7,8,19]. Results from the current study suggest that if the amount of hip rotation at the top of the backswing is limited, a great amount of separation (PSHSA) between the shoulder and hip segments will be created. If, during the forward swing, the increased shoulder-hip separation angle is followed by hip rotation before shoulder rotation, momentum will be sequentially transferred from the larger body segments to the smaller distal segments, resulting in a high SBV. 
Much more research, however, is needed to verify the importance of shoulder-hip separation angle for female players� SBV. Future research should address the limitations of the current study. First, PSHSA, PSRV, as well as PHRV should be measured in settings that do not impede spike approaches or cause players to be concerned with damaging laboratory equipment. Secondly, PSHSA, PSRV, as well as PHRV should be measured under a number of different �set� positions and types. In the current study, a SPIKE IT� was used to fix ball height and position from the net based upon the self-selected position during the DL spikes. Thus, the players were unable to change the height and position of the ball in the DAC spikes, this procedure could have influenced the amount of PSHSA as well as PSRV, and PHRV, resulting in lower SBV for DAC spikes. By allowing for the selection of different ball positions for different types of spike and by using actual sets, more insight into the possible contribution of rotational variables on female players� SBV will be obtained. Lastly, longitudinal intervention designs examining the influence of improving PSHSA, PSRV, and PHRV should be undertaken.

PRACTICAL APPLICATION
The current study demonstrated a significant relationship between PSHSA, PSRV, PHRV, and SBV for DAC spikes. In addition, regression analysis revealed that PSHSA was the most important predictor of SBV. Based upon the results of the current study, the incorporation of core rotational exercises into the strength and conditioning programs for volleyball players specializing as outside hitters may help improve SBV, especially for DAC spikes. In addition, spiking drills that emphasize creating shoulder-hip separation during the backswing might help players impart more velocity to the spiked ball.  




















REFERENCES  
Ferris DP, Signorile JG, Caruso JF (1995) The relationship between physical and physiological variables and volleyball spiking velocity. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research 9(1): 32�36.
Forthomme B, Croisier J, Ciccarone G, Crielaard J, Cloes M (2005) Factors correlated with volleyball spike velocity. American Journal of Sports Medicine 33(10): 1513�1519.
Coleman SGS, Benham AS, Northcott SR (1993) A three-dimensional cinematographical analysis of the volleyball spike. Journal of Sports Sciences 11: 295�302.
Newell RF, Lauder MA (2005) Three-dimensional kinematic analysis of the front-court volleyball spike of female volleyball players. Annual Conference of the British Association of Sport and Exercise Sciences 108�109.	
Reeser JC, Fleisig GS, Bolt B, Ruan M (2010) Upper limb biomechanics during the volleyball serve and spike. Sports Health: A Multidisciplinary Approach 2(5), 368-374. 
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Aguinaldo AL, Buttermore J, Chambers H (2007) Effects of upper trunk rotation on shoulder joint torque among baseball pitchers of various levels. Journal of Applied Biomechanics 23: 42�51.





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