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��ࡱ�>��	�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������[�	���Dbjbj����	<Lΐΐ��)���������55����������8��� ��r\hU!(}!(�!�!�!�#�#�#�[�[�[�[�[�[�[$�^�|aZ�[���(�#�#�(�(�[55�!�!C,\�E�E�E�(�5R�!��!�[�E�(�[�E�ErYOT�"5P�!����0��Zc���=b�Oq[B\0r\�Oz�a@��a5P5P8�a�mP�#dP%��EN&�'��#�#�#�[�[�B��#�#�#r\�(�(�(�(���������������������������������������������������������������������a�#�#�#�#�#�#�#�#�#�	�:	Analysis of tree diversity patterns in the tropical evergreen and moist deciduous forests 
of the Middle Andaman Islands, India



Stutee Gupta1and P. Rama Chandra Prasad2*

Forestry and Ecology Division, Indian Institute of Remote Sensing, Dehradun-248001, Uttaranchal, India
Lab for Spatial Informatics, International Institute of Information Technology, Gachibowli, Hyderabad- 500032, India






*Corresponding Author:
Dr.P.Rama Chandra Prasad, 
Assistant Professor,
Lab for spatial Informatics, 
International Institute of Information Technology, 
Gachibowli, Hyderabad � 500032 
Andhra Pradesh, India.
Contact No: +91-9246109160 ; Fax.No. +91-40-6653 1413
Email:    HYPERLINK "mailto:rcprasad@iiit.ac.in" rcprasad@iiit.ac.in
	 rcp_ncmsl@yahoo.co.in 
 

Running Head line: Tree diversity of the Middle Andaman Islands








Abstract

In the current study, phytosociological data were collected in two predominant forest types of the Middle Andaman Islands to analyse their tree diversity patterns. The tree attributes of tropical evergreen and moist deciduous forest of the islands were collected by stratified random sampling. The results of the study showed that the moist deciduous forests were more diverse that the evergreen forests. Myristica andamanica was the dominant species in evergreen forest and Pterocarpus dalbergioides in moist deciduous forest. A comparison of the diversity related patterns of these islands with other tropical forests, ranked them at comparable levels manifesting as highly luxuriant forests which should be conserved.
.


Key words: Andaman Islands, Conservation, Diversity, Endemic, Phytosociology, Rank abundance curves, Tropical rainforest. 



















Introduction

Tropical rainforests constitute one of the world�s richest biomes with high species diversity [1] and play a vital role in controlling global climate changes [2]. Although tropical rainforests occupy only 12% of the earth�s land surface they contain perhaps 50% or more of the species on the earth [3] and have for long received special attention on this account. Several studies have been carried out to estimate the biodiversity of these forests at various sites across the world [4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11]. These studies help in identifying potential sites of species richness and diversity [12] as well as hotspots that harbour high endemism. A few other studies [13, 14, 15] have focused on threats to the biodiversity of these forests due to increasing anthropogenic activities [16]. Further, the study of biodiversity by using a floristic inventory [17] helps in understanding the species composition and status of the forests [18] and can subsequently form the basis for forest-conservation planning [19, 20] and decision-making [21]. 

Within the Indian sub-continent, the forests of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands (ANI) are categorized as tropical rainforest and are a virtual bio-reserve, being unique in terms of biodiversity and endemism [22]. Four of the world�s 34 recognized biodiversity hotspots overlap India�s geographic boundaries: the ANI are part of the Indo-Burma hotspot [23].Within this area there are large floristic differences between the Andaman and Nicobar. On the basis of phytogeographic distribution, the Andaman islands were classified as part of the Indo-Chinese region showing affinities with Indo-Myanmar flora, whereas the Nicobar islands were in the Malaysian region with floristic resemblances to Malaya and Sumatra [24]. 

Their remoteness and inaccessibility, along with hostile cannibalistic natives [25] and other tribal communities, have previously limited diversity-related studies in these islands. However, their high species diversity has drawn the attention of ecologists in recent years. Roy et al., [26] characterized the ecological parameters of the Bakultala Forest Range of the Middle Andaman Islands (MAI). Padalia et al., [27] documented the tree diversity of the Andaman islands and Ali, [28] studied the vegetation structure of Interview island, Mahatma Gandhi Marine National Park and Little Andaman (LA) in connection with the impact of herbivores on the vegetation. The community structure and species diversity of Saddle Peak forests (North Andaman) were studied along an elevation gradient by Tripathi et al., [29]. Various quantitative and qualitative aspects of the terrestrial vegetation of the North Andaman Islands (NAI) have been described by Prasad et al., [9, 12, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34]. Rasingam & Parathasarathy, [35] have given an account of tree diversity and population structure across major forest formations and disturbance categories in LA. The advent of remote sensing and Geographic Information Systems (GIS) have provided opportunities to map, analyse and characterize the biodiversity of different forest types of these Islands [36, 30,16, 37), and to identify changes due to various anthropogenic and natural disturbances [38]. 

Objective of the study
Information on phytodiversity of the MAI is limited.  Though Roy et al., [26] studied different forest types they covered only one of the forests ranges of the MAI. The recent study by Rajkumar & Parthasarathy, [39] provided diversity-related information about the tropical giant evergreen forest of these Islands. However, their study was limited to one forest type, sampling a large contiguous plot (1 ha) at two different sites. The limitation with contiguous plot sampling is that it cannot capture the exact diversity of the area due to its existence at homogenous environmental conditions compared to the stratified random survey where data is collected at heterogeneous locations.

        Our aim in the current study was to fill the lacuna in previous studies and provide an addition to the existing data on phytodiversity of MAI. Utilizing a stratified random sampling technique, we investigated the floristic structure and diversity patterns of two different predominant forest types of these islands, viz., tropical evergreen forest (TEG) and tropical moist deciduous forest (TMD). Random sampling is advantageous in capturing the high species richness of the area, as it involves unsystematic distribution of quadrats covering various topographic gradients. The study is of much significance in understanding the structure, species composition and diversity patterns of lesser known forest vegetation of the MAI.

Materials and Methods

Study area
Andaman and Nicobar are two important districts of the ANI. Andaman is a set of five big island groups viz. North Andaman, Middle Andaman, Baratang, South Andaman and Little Andaman islands besides the several small islands distributed around each of them. The study area, MAI lies between 12( 11( and 12( 55( N and between 92( 40( and 92( 59( E, and covers an area of 1,536 km� (Fig.1). The islands have a typical tropical climate. Soils are acidic in nature with a high amount of clay [40]. There are no rivers, but small streams run in all directions over the islands. The coastline is broken by several deep indentations of creeks. The topography is undulating, with high elevations and steep slopes. Champion and Seth, [41] classified the forests of these islands into Andaman Tropical Evergreen Forest - IA/C2 (here, tropical evergreen forest), Andaman Semi Evergreen Forest - 2A/C1, Andaman Moist Deciduous Forest-3A/C1/2S1 (here, tropical moist deciduous forest) and Tidal Swamp Forest - 4B/TS2.

Methods

 A field inventory was carried out by laying stratified random quadrats at different topographic gradients in relatively intact patches of the two forest types to collect phytosociological data. Based on the experiences of earlier studies [42, 43], a conventional quadrat size of 20m�20m (0.04 ha) was fixed, and overall 44 sample quadrats (23 in tropical evergreen forest and 21 in tropical moist deciduous forest - taking into account the remoteness and inaccessibility of the area) were selected for the current investigation. 

At each sample point the circumference at breast height (cbh) of all trees of all species was recorded. Individuals with cbh e" 17 cm were considered as trees. Identification was facilitated by the regular inclusion in the field parties of local people and field staff of the forest department who had reasonably good knowledge of forests and plant names. Most of the specimens collected were identified in the field station with the help of Parkinson Flora [44] and collected material available at Botanical Survey of India (BSI), Andaman and Nicobar Circle. However, some of them could be identified only to family or genus level. The unidentified specimens were preserved and later identified in herbaria at the Forest Research Institute and BSI (Northern Circle), Dehra Dun, India.

Data analysis
Quantitative data collected from the vegetation were analysed to compute for each species the frequency, abundance, density [45], basal area and importance value index � IVI (sum of relative density, relative frequency and relative dominance of the species � [46]), and also for each family, the Family Importance Value Index � FIVI (sum of relative diversity, relative density and relative dominance of the family � [47]). The girth class distribution was analysed to depict the structure of the forest in terms of tree size. Species richness was calculated as number of species encountered in all the quadrats. A t-test was performed to identify the significance of the difference in the mean values of species richness in two forest types. Further, ecological indices like those of Hill [48, Shannon [49], Simpson [50], and S�rensen, [51] were used to derive estimates of evenness (relative abundance of species), diversity (species heterogeneity in the sampled area), dominance (the probability that two individuals randomly selected from a sample will belong to the same species), and similarity (common species shared between the two forest types) for the area under study. Species accumulation curves were plotted to check whether the current investigation was able to capture the species richness of the area under study. Rank-abundance curves were plotted to represent the diversity patterns. Cluster analysis of the sample quadrats using, Ward�s method [52] with Euclidean distance was used to distinguish and delineate different species communities in each forest type. Each cluster was delineated as a different community; the four most common clusters in each forest type were identified, the other quadrats being considered as outliers. All these analyses were performed using MS-excel, Statistica and R-stats software [53].

Results and Discussions

Species Richness

Generally, in vegetation studies the number of species in a square metre or a hectare has been used as measure for comparing community species richness [54, 55]. In the current investigation the two forest types showed more or less similar species richness (87 in the 21 quadrats of TMD, 94 in the 23 quadrats of TEG) However the mean species richness was found to be more in TEG (14.78 in 23 quadrats) than in TMD (13.57 in 21 quadrats), but this difference did not reach significance (t-test 95% confidence interval, p=0.4033). The species accumulation curves (Fig.2) plotted for both the forest types continued without saturation indicating that the area sampled for the study is not sufficient to capture the complete species richness.

For two locations (Kalapahad and Macarthy Valley) in the MAI, Rajkumar & Parthasarathy, [39] performed complete enumerations of tree species in continuous areas of one hectare, recording 68 and 75 species in the two areas respectively.  As may be expected, these figures are lower than those found elsewhere, for which records for a number of random quadrats have been combined. In mature continental tropical forests Phillips et al., [56], reported species richness (stems > 10 cbh in a combined area of 1 ha) ranging from 60 to 283. In the Malay Peninsula of Southeast Asia, the highest richness recorded so far is 255 (e"30 cbh) species in a hectare [57]. In previous studies by many researchers across the various Andaman Islands, moderate levels of species richness have been reported (37-83 species per hectare). Also, the findings of the present study (87 and 94 species) are high compared to those quoted by Prasad et al., [9] in the NAI, who reported species richness of 39.5 - 54.28 per hectare, yet in both these studies the quadrats were randomly distributed in the various vegetation types throughout the study area

Diversity, dominance and evenness

 Diversity can generally be expressed in terms of both species richness and evenness, and can be utilized in identification of potential sites of biodiversity. Species diversity was found to be highest in TMD (3.8); Roy et al., [26] in the MAI also reported the highest species diversity in TMD forest followed by semi - evergreen and mangrove forests. 

Tropical rain forest of Silent Valley, India and Barro Colorado Island, Panama [58, 59] represents the highest diversity of tree species i.e. 4.8-4.89 respectively. In the recent literature, the tropical forests in the Eastern and Western Ghats of India are reported to have species diversity ranging from 3.14 to 3.7 [60, 61]. While general diversity for a dry tropical forest of India ranged from 1.9 to 2.8 [62] and for a rehabilitated tropical forest in north India ranged from 3.25 to 3.99 [63]. The diversity in wet tropical forests of Andaman ranged from a minimum of 1.7 (disturbed sites) to a maximum of 3.6 [39, 35, 29]. In the LA and NAI, higher values of diversity were found to be associated with the semi-evergreen forest, followed by the evergreen and the moist deciduous forest [9, 35]. 

The reasons for differences in diversity pattern among the forests are mainly variations in micro-topographic conditions, previous extraction activities, and to a certain extent other anthropogenic disturbances. The high species diversity observed in TMD forests in the present study could be attributed to their low altitudes and zones of open canopy. The lower altitude brings in frequent disturbances by various factors, enabling new species to be recruited, and an open canopy favours the stabilization of the species, thus increasing species diversity [64, 65]. However the diversity patterns of TEG cannot be considered to be low as compared to TMD. The current study captured the full diversity of TMD by surveying all the locations of this forest type in the MAI; but with respect to TEG forest a major stretch of this forest type located in the Jarwa territory (Fig 1) was not surveyed. This intact, vast undisturbed patch surely harbours a wide range of unreported species, knowing which would perhaps enhance the phytosociological attributes of TEG forest.

Simpson�s Dominance was highest for the TEG (0.05) followed by TMD forest (0.04). Similar observations were made by Prasad et al., [9] in the NAI but the values were slightly less, viz. TEG forest - 0.04 and TMD forest - 0.03. Hill evenness values were found to be higher in the TMD (0.85). The lower dominance and higher evenness values indicate higher heterogeneity and more equal abundance of species in tropical moist deciduous forest compared to the tropical evergreen forest.

 Plotting of rank-abundance curves (Fig.3) not only provided information on the abundance of species but also about the diversity with respect to species richness and evenness.  The steepness in gradient at the left-hand end of the curve for TEG forest indicates low evenness, as the high-ranking species like Myristica andamanica, Dipterocarpus turbinatus and Celtis timorensis have much higher abundances than the low-ranking species. The more gentle gradient at the left-hand end of the curve for TMD forest shows high evenness, as the abundances of different common species are similar, thus confirming the high diversity of these forests.

Species similarity

The similarity index showed a high percentage (>50%) of species being shared between the two forest types and is comparable to the observations made by Roy et al., [26] in the Bakultala range of the MAI. The high degree of similarity between the two forest types indicates their close association, without a broad ecotonal fringe, allowing the dispersal and survival in each community of species from the other.

Stem density and basal area
Evaluation of the density-dependent status of species in a study site is important for the conservation and management of forests [66]. The tree density was found to range from 870 to 976 trees ha-1, and the basal area from 49.00 to 56.75 m2 ha-1, with the higher values for both the parameters being in TEG forest.  The density of trees (>30 cbh) in TEG is known to range from a low value of 245 [67], through intermediate values of 420 - 617 ha-1  in the Brazilian Amazon [68] to  high values of 639 - 713 ha-1  in Central Amazonian upland forest [69]. In India, tropical forests of the Western Ghats exhibit a wide range of tree density - - 575 � 855 trees ha-1 [70]. In the Kolli Hills of the Eastern Ghats, however, the density is less -- 478-547 trees ha-1 [60]. 

In the Andaman and Nicobar Islands the minimum density of trees (e"17 cbh) reported has been 410 trees ha-1 in a disturbed site and the maximum 935 trees ha-1 in an undisturbed site in LA [35]. In the present study (also using a size limit of 17 cm cbh) we have recorded a high tree density (976 trees ha-1). Others have found tree densities within this range, in various forests and sites of the Andaman Islands i.e. 708-774 trees ha-1 (>30 cbh) in the NAI [9] and 579-732 trees ha-1 (>30 cbh) in giant evergreen forests of the MAI [39]. 

Canopy cover and basal area are two common measures of tree dominance used in resource selection studies [71]. The dry and wet forests of the world are reported to have basal area ranging from 17 to 40 and 20 to75 m2 ha-1 respectively [72]. In the Eastern Ghats of India, the evergreen forests of the Kolli hills, Tamil Nadu, had basal areas ranging from 43.6 to 46.74 m2 ha-1 [60] whereas tropical dry deciduous forests of southern Andhra Pradesh had a low basal area of 11.46 m2 ha-1 [73]. In the Western Ghats, which are known to be richer in terms of species diversity, basal area ranged from 61.70 to 94.64 m2 ha-1 [70].

Earlier studies in various forest types of the Andaman islands have reported basal areas of 35.06 m2 ha-1 [28] and in ranges 48 � 63[29], 28.6 - 44.28[27], 47.4 - 54.19 [9], 41 - 57.5 [35], 45.21 - 47.51 m2 ha-1 [39], with the higher basal areas reported in the TEG. However, Rasingam & Parthasarathy [35] in LA found the highest basal area in the TMD forest. Hence, the results obtained in the present study (49.00 - 56.75 m2 ha-1) are in accord with previous studies. 

As documented by Phillips et al., [56] in their review on the dynamics and species richness of tropical rain forests, the stand density and basal area of mature continental tropical forests (>10cm cbh) ranges from 435 (Sabah) to 957 trees ha-1 (Queensland, Australia) and from 23.0 (Venezuela) to 69.6 m2 ha-1 (Queensland, Australia) respectively. In this regard, the inland tropical forests of the MAI with trees (e"17cm), having a  density of 810-976 ha-1  and basal area 49.00-56.75 m2 ha-1, as reported in the present study are clearly some of the most luxuriant forests, not only in India but in the entire world.

Species and family dominance

Myristica andamanica was the most dominant species in TEG forest, contributing high IVI (38.12) and Pterocarpus dalbergioides (IVI = 28.92) was most dominant in TMD forest. Padalia et al., [27] similarly reported Myristica andamanica as the dominant species in TEG forest, but they obtained lower values of IVI (16.42), and in TMD forest Pterocarpus dalbergioides was reported as a co-dominant species. Myristica sp. was also reported to be dominant in the unlogged forest of the Interview Islands, lying west of the MAI [28]. In contrast, Roy et al. [26] reported the dominance of Dipterocarpus griffithii and Artocarpus heterophyllum in the TEG forest of the Bakulatala Range of the MAI. Rajkumar & Parthasarathy, [39], from their studies in giant evergreen forests of Kalapahar and Macathy Valley in the MAI, also reported Dipterocarpus sp. to be dominant. Similarly, Prasad et al., [9] reported the dominance of Dipterocarpus gracilis in the TEG forest and Pterocarpus dalbergioides in the TMD forest of the NAI. 

Based on the FIVI, Myristicaceae (33.89) and Fabaceae (29.71) were found to be the dominant families in TEG and TMD forests respectively. In the NAI, which lie in close proximity to the MAI, Myristicacee is the family second in dominance in the TEG forest while for TMD forest the observations are identical. Similarly, based on the stem density, Myristicaceae, Sterculiaceae; genera wise Annonaceae, Sterculiaceae and species wise Anacardiaceae, Ebenaceae dominated in TEG and TMD forests respectively. In the NAI, Prasad et al. [9] reported that based on stem density Myristicaceae, Ebenaceae; genera wise Euphorbiaceae, Rubiaceae and species wise Euphorbiaceae (both the forests) dominated in TEG and TMD respectively. Padalia et al., [27] also reported maximum number of species in the Euphorbiaceae. It is therefore inferred that whereas, in spite of their proximity, forests in the two major island groups of the Andaman differ significantly in their structure and composition at the higher taxonomic level of classification and the MAI have more heterogeneous representation at higher levels. Overall, the analysis showed the dominance of families Myristicaceae, Sterculiaceae, Anacardiaceae and Ebenaceae in the vegetation of the MAI. 

Girth class analysis

Wattenberg & Breckle [74] demonstrated that tree diversity inventories at defined study sites and in minimum diameter classes, reflect the diversity level of a study site. In both the forest types the girth class 30-60 cm exhibited high diversity (5.0 in TEG forest and 5.3 in TMD forest), which can be attributed to the recruitment of new species from neighbouring communities. In higher girth classes, the presence of trees with larger girth and a wide canopy does not favour the growth of dispersed seeds, thus restricting the new entities and maintaining a community with low diversity. The decrease in species diversity with increasing girth class, as found in the present research, is similar to observation made by Parthasarathy and Karthikeyan, [75] in the Western Ghats, Prasad et al., [9] in the NAI, and Rajkumar & Parthasarathy, [39] in the MAI. The girth class analysis in the present study visualizes the forest-stand structure as of the inflating type (Fig 4) with a greater number of trees in the lower size classes, a subsequent reduction in the next classes, and high basal area contributed by the higher girth classes (e.g. the class > 210 cm contributes 21.07 m2 ha-1 in TEG forest and 20.75 m2 ha-1 in TMD forest). 

Forest community Classification

In TEG forest the 23 quadrats sampled were clustered into four associations. A dendrogram based on Ward�s method grouped the sample quadrats into two clusters C1 and C2 (Fig 5a). While C1 with 17% of the sample data had only two sub-clusters (S1, S2), in C2 including 83% of the sample data sub-clusters were heterogeneous and more numerous. In C1S1 (P33, P32) Tabernaemontana crispa, Anaxagorea luzonensis and Dipterocarpus turbinatus were more common. C1S2 showed presence of Anaxagorea luzonensis, Dipterocarpus turbinatus and Prunus javanica and thus it was clustered with C1S1. In cluster C2 also two sub clusters were delineated, however they were further formed by the grouping of quadrats at lower levels. Sub cluster C2S1 was represented by three groupings i.e. P09 (Myristica andamanica, Celtis timorensis, Pithecellobium angulatum), P80-43 (Dipterocarpus turbinatus, Myristica andamanica) and P41-38 (Artocarpus chama, Myristica andamanica, Pterospermum acerifolium). Interestingly in the sub cluster C2S2 maximums number of quadrats were grouped. It was formed by 14 quadrats representing 61% of the samples in the overall tropical evergreen forest. However, C2S2 have been found to be formed by further grouping at lower levels and highly heterogeneous in species composition with few species in common at higher linkage distance. There were  four distinct groupings viz. P41-38 (Artocarpus chama, Myristica andamanica, Pterospermum acerifolium), P31,51,15,17 (Celtis timorensis, Diospyros crumenata, Ganophyllum inophyllum and  Anaxagorea luzonensis), P88 (Astragalus homesus, Calophyllum inophyllum, Celtis timorensis, Diospyros crumenata, Drimycarpus racemosus, Ganophyllum inophyllum, Mangifera andamanica and  Myristica andamanica) and P88,83,40,10,11,08,01 (Myristica andamanica, Dipterocarpus turbinatus, Celtis timorensis,  Pometia pinnata, Dipterocarpus griffithii). It is quite interesting to find Anaxagorea luzonensis, which is one of the major shrubs, represented as dominant species distributed in tropical evergreen forest of the Middle Andaman Islands on par competing with other emergent evergreen species.

In TMD forest also the tree data collected from 21 quadrats were segregated into four associations (Fig 5b) mainly represented by Tectona grandis, Diospyros mormorata, Streblus asper and Myristica andamanica. There was one cluster C1 (P89, 23) formed at a very short linkage distance and it was represented by Tectona grandis, Pterygota alata, Pterospermum acerifolium, Cleidion javanicum, Strychnos wallichiana, Lagerstroemia hypoleuca, and Tabernaemontana crispa. At a higher linkage distance of 30, a second cluster (C2) and 2 outliers were obtained. The C2 was further composed by three sub clusters i.e. C2S1, C2S2 and C2S3. Whereas in C2S1 (P81, 64, 60, 58, 59, 06) the common species were  Sterculia villosa,  Acronychia pedunculata, Pterocarpus dalbergioides, Celtis timorensis, Diospyros pilosiuscula, Nauclea gageana, Pterocymbium tinctorium and Streblus asper, in C2S2 (P56, 57, 55) Myristica andamanica, Pisonia umbellifera, Celtis timorensis, Lagerstroemia hypoleuca, Xanthophyllum andamanicum, Tabernaemontana crispa, Pterospermum acerifolium, Astragalus homesus, Diospyros crumenata and Artocarpus chama were having their representations. C2S3 (P39, 85, 69, 67, 66, 44, 07, 05) was composed of Streblus asper, Pterocarpus dalbergioides, Terminalia manii, Atalantia malabarica, Tabernaemontana crispa, Diospyros kurzii, Terminalia bialata, Striga lutea, Terminalia catappa, Bombax insigne, Ganophyllum inophyllum and Randia andamanica. Outlier 1 (P74) was found to have the high dominance of Pterygota alata and Pterospermum acerifolium whereas Outlier 2 was largely dominated by Pterospermum acerifolium and Strychnos wallichiana which were either poorly or not represented at all in other quadrats. 

Endemic species
The floristic studies on the diversity and distribution are incomplete without addressing the endemic species of forest community. The ANI are bestowed with the largest number of endemic species and most of these endemics in these islands occur in very limited localities and in small populations, which makes them extremely vulnerable to extinction. Some of the localized species may become extinct due to destruction of even a small patch of forest, as they do not occur in the other areas nor have they had chances to migrate [76]. In the present study, 28 endemic and 8 rare species have been reported from the two forest types taken together, out of 245 species reported by Dagar & Singh, [76] for the ANI. Some of the species e.g. Dichapetalum gelonioides and Garcinia andamanica, which are rare and endemic, are represented by a single individual in the sample plots, indicating their limited population and distribution. Such species are under the threat of extinction and need immediate conservation measures.

Acknowledgement

The study was carried out as a part of Project for characterizing biodiversity of Andaman and Nicobar islands at landscape level at Indian Institute of Remote Sensing, Dehradun, India under the funding of Department of Biotechnology. Thanks are also due for the Andaman forest department for their logistic and the field staff for their help during the field inventory.

Conclusions
Tropical rainforests are the most important terrestrial ecosystems on earth, acting as vital repositories for biodiversity, supporting a rich flora and fauna, and maintaining ecological stability.  In the current study we were able to capture the vivid diversity of TMD forest to a certain extent as we surveyed this forest at different locations of the MAI, but with respect TEG forest still there exists a gap, as our survey missed a major stretch of tropical evergreen forest lying within the Jarwa territory. The possibility of exploration in this area may reveal the existence of certain species, and probably thus increase the richness and diversity patterns of TEG forest compared to TMD. It would be inappropriate to draw quantitative comparisons among the studies on tropical forest, because of significant differences in sample size, quadrat size and dimensions, researchers� choice of standard cbh, environmental conditions, and other site factors; still, it is useful to rank-order tropical forests by tree species richness, density, basal area and diversity. In doing so, tropical forests from the present study rank as some of the most diverse and dense in the world. Also, based on the community analysis and previous studies in the ANI it was observed that, as compared to the LA lying south of the Andamans, the forests of the MAI resemble those of the NAI more closely in their structure, composition and diversity

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