CLIMATE VARIABILITY: PATTERNS DRIVERS AND ECOLOGICAL IMPLICATIONS

Climate variability refers to natural and anthropogenically influenced fluctuations in climate patterns over seasonal to multi‑decadal timescales. These fluctuations manifest as variations in temperature, precipitation, atmospheric circulation, and oceanic conditions. Climate variability significantly influences ecosystems, water resources, agriculture, and human societies. Understanding the mechanisms driving climate variability — including El Niño–Southern Oscillation (ENSO), Pacific Decadal Oscillation (PDO), and Atlantic Multidecadal Oscillation (AMO) — is essential for predicting regional climate impacts and informing adaptation strategies. This article reviews the primary modes of climate variability, their drivers, and their ecological and socio‑economic consequences.