Research Article, J Def Stud Resour Manage Vol: 11 Issue: 3

Inventory Analysis of Unmanned Aerial Vehicles for a NATO Member Army

Ahmet Emin Yildiz^*

¹Department of Aviation Electrical and Electronics, Erciyes University, Kayseri, Türkiye

*Corresponding Author: Ahmet Emin Yildiz,
Department of Aviation Electrical and Electronics, Erciyes University, Kayseri, Türkiye, Türkiye
E-mail: aeyildiz@protonmail.com

Received date: 30 August, 2023, Manuscript No. JDSRM-23-111802;

Editor assigned date: 01 September, 2023, PreQC No. JDSRM-23-111802 (PQ);

Reviewed date: 15 September, 2023, QC No. JDSRM-23-111802;

Revised date: 22 September, 2023, Manuscript No. JDSRM-23-111802 (R);

Published date: 02 October, 2023, DOI: 10.4172/2324-9315.1000182

Citation: Yildiz AE (2023) Inventory Analysis of Unmanned Aerial Vehicles for a NATO Member Army. J Def Stud Resour Manage 11:3.

Abstract

Keywords: Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAV); Turkish Armed Forces (TAF); Inventory analysis; Defense studies; Inventory studies

Introduction

The development and operation of UAV technologies has been rapidly expanding in recent years. UAVs are defined as remotely or autonomously controlled aerial vehicles without onboard manual control [1]. According to the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) Circular, UAVs are defined as autonomous aircraft capable of pilotless flight [2]. UAVs have continued to operate by being integrated into a number of subsystems with the developing technology over time. Therefore, the UAV has become more complex than usual. The term ‘UAV’ used to describe this complex and multi- component system has been deemed inadequate in some studies in the literature. Instead of the term ‘UAV’, it has been suggested that the term ‘UAV systems’ is a more inclusive and accurate description [3-5]. In this study, the most preferred term in the literature is ‘UAV’.

The use of UAVs dates back to ancient times. In 180-234 AD, Chinese General Zhuge Liang equipped paper balloons with oil- burning lamps to heat the air, which are known as the first UAV applications [6]. In the first half of the 19^th century, the Austrians sent 200 pilotless balloons with timed explosives into the city of Venice, which was the first air attack [7]. Today, it is seen that the technologies shaping the battlefield are unmanned aerial vehicles [8]. The security concerns of countries have also played a major role in the development of UAV technologies. These technologies have also changed the structure of conflict in a hybrid war environment. When the armies of countries trying to shape the operational environment of the future are examined, it is seen that armies include a wide variety of UAVs in their inventory [9]. Since the early 2000s, it has been observed that the production and diversity of UAVs used in the military field has increased [10]. NATO countries are known to have more than 90 HALE-type UAVs, 415 MALE-type UAVs and over 6100 mini-UAVs [11]. In 2013, 1708 types of UAVs were produced by 540 organizations in 53 countries. In 2013, 15 types of UAVs were produced in Turkey [12]. In 2021, the variety of UAVs produced by 670 organizations in 68 countries has increased to 1978. In 2021, 25 different types of UAVs were produced in Turkey, increasing the variety of UAVs by 10. As of 2021, it was determined that 26.7% of the 1978 types of UAVs produced were used in the military field [13].

The widespread use of UAVs and their rapidly increasing number necessitates the need to classify UAVs. There are many institutions and organizations that carry out legal regulations on UAVs both nationally and internationally. Although these organizations work in cooperation with each other, there is an obligation to accept the regulations of some of them in order for the decisions taken to be binding. These regulations include the classification of UAVs [14]. However, to date, there is no agreed common classification approach for UAVs in the world. Therefore, there are many UAV classification approaches based on various classification factors [15]. There are many countries in different geographies of the world (European Continent, American Continent, United Kingdom, African Continent, Asian Continent, etc.) as well as international institutions/organizations for the classification of UAVs. The standards of these institutions/organizations are very important both in terms of setting a common standard worldwide and in terms of binding many countries. In terms of UAV classification, the most widely accepted classification approach in the world in terms of scope and usage belongs to NATO [16]. NATO classifies UAVs into 3 classes and 6 categories. The classification factors are weight, purpose of usage, operating altitude and operating radius. Class-I (w<150 kg) includes small (w>20 kg), mini (2 kg-20 kg), micro (w<2 kg). Class II (150 kg<w<600 kg) includes tactical. Class-III (w>600 kg) includes strike/combat, High-Altitude Long Endurance (HALE) and Medium-Altitude Long Endurance (MALE) UAVs [16]. In this study, the UAVs in the inventory of the selected reference army are evaluated according to NATO UAV classification.

When the studies on ‘Turkish Armed Forces UAV inventory’ were examined in the literature, no study was found in which all UAVs in the Turkish Armed Forces UAV inventory were examined and analyzed together. It has been observed that studies have been conducted on some UAVs in the inventory based on different analysis methods. Some of the studies in the literature are as follows; Karaşıray [10] analyzed UAVs according to their manufacturers and capabilities, Akyürek et al., [17] according to their operational effectiveness, Karaağaç [18] according to conventional warfare and air-space operation missions, Kahvecioğlu and Oktal [19] according to UAV market reports, Borsari [20] according to their effectiveness on the battlefield, Milan and Bassiri [21] according to the operational effectiveness of the TB2 system, Bayındır [22] according to their effectiveness in various military missions, Katrancı [23] according to their technical specifications, Ateş [24] according to their technical specifications, Gozde et al., [25] analyzed the Kargu, Alpagu and Togan kamikaze UAVs produced by STM according to the advantages they provide in the combat environment, Çılgın [26] according to their areas of use, Özbudak [27] according to the capabilities of kamikaze UAVs that are superior to traditional mortars and artillery weapons, Düz [28] analyzed the operational effectiveness of technical features according to the results of the operations carried out by UAV systems. Gettinger [29] conducted the most comprehensive inventory study on UAV systems in the world.

This study aims to:

1. Identify the number of UAVs in the Turkish Armed Forces inventory from open sources and analysis them with a new method.

2. It is aimed to make recommendations for the UAV inventory in order for the Turkish Armed Forces to survive among the armies that can shape the hybrid/asymmetric battlefield in the future.

3. The aim of this study is to contribute to the inventory studies of the armies with these defense technologies and to use the defense resources of the armies more effectively and efficiently.

Materials and Methods

Turkish armed forces UAV inventory: In the study, the Turkish Armed Forces, the second largest army of NATO, was selected as the reference army. In this context, the UAV inventory of the Air-Land- Navy Forces, which constitute the main organizational structure of the Turkish Armed Forces, was examined from open sources. Developments in foreign and domestic supply processes are as follows:

Foreign supply process: In 1989, the ‘Meggitt BTT-3 Banshee’ produced by Target Technology entered the inventory of the Turkish Armed Forces. In 1994, five ‘Canadair CL-89’ for surveillance purposes entered the inventory but were used for a very short time due to logistical problems and accident and breakdown problems. Between 1995 and 2005, the Turkish Land Forces used the ‘Gnat 750’ and ‘I-Gnat’ UAVs developed by General Atomics for reconnaissance and surveillance missions. With the gradual development of UAV technology and the need for MALE UAVs in the battlefield of the Turkish Armed Forces, ‘Heron’ UAVs developed by Israel were leased and started to be used in the Turkish Armed Forces in 2007. Thus, ‘Heron’ UAVs became the first UAV system to enter the Air Force inventory. In 2008, three ‘Aerostar’ UAVs developed by the Aeronautics Company entered the Land Forces inventory and were used [28-30].

Domestic supply process: It is known that UAV development activities started in the early 1990s. The ‘UAV-X1 Şahit’, whose development activities were initiated by TAI in 1990, was the first indigenous UAV produced. In 1992, two ‘UAV-X1 Şahit’ UAVs were produced, but serial production was not realized. In 1996, ‘Turna- Keklik UAVs’, in 2003 ‘Pelikan-Martı UAVs’, in 2007 ‘Gözcü UAV’, in 2008 ‘Öncü UAV’, in 2009 ‘Malazgirt UAV’, in 2012 ‘Şimşek UAV’ were developed with national and domestic capabilities. In line with the needs of the Turkish Armed Forces, tactical UAV development activities accelerated after 2010. In 2012, ‘Anka UAV’, ‘Bayraktar Mini UAV’; in 2013, ‘Vestel Karayel UAV’; and in 2014, ‘Bayraktar TB-2 UAV’ were developed [30,31] (Figure 1).

Figure 1 shows numerical information on the UAVs in the Air Force inventory. Accordingly, it is seen that Harpy, TB-2, Anka, Heron-1, MQ-1 Predator, Akıncı, Aksungur UAVs are operating in the Air Force inventory. ‘Harpy UAV’ in Class I and ‘TB2 UAV’ in Class III are the most common UAVs in the inventory. Approximately 70% of the UAVs in the Air Force inventory are Class III UAVs. This is an indication that the Air Force uses UAVs mostly in strategic missions.

In a hybrid warfare environment, the capabilities and capabilities of ground troops increase in direct proportion to their size. This necessitates the use of UAVs on the battlefield for military purposes in harmony with the size and capabilities of ground troops. According to a classic Land Forces Doctrine, UAVs are analyzed at four levels [32] (Figure 2). These are:

1. Level-I: Team and Platoon

2. Level-II: Company

3. Level-III: Battalion

4. Level-IV: Brigade level.

The UAV inventory of the Land Forces Command is presented in Figure. 2. It is seen that Serçe-1, Kargu, Bayraktar Mini, TB-2, Songar and Akıncı UAVs are operating in the Land Forces inventory. When the UAVs in the inventory are examined, it is seen that the number of UAVs in Class I, which are suitable for mobile use in accordance with the organizational structure, which can be easily carried and launched manually, is higher. According to the doctrinal structure of the Land Forces, micro and mini-UAVs in Level-I and small and tactical UAVs in Level-IV are mostly preferred in the inventory.

Maritime security is one of the most important security issues. The Turkish Naval Forces must be ready for illegal migration, terrorist activities and many other threats in its area of duty and responsibility. In this context, it needs UAVs to conduct maritime patrol and aerial reconnaissance-surveillance-intelligence activities and to intervene immediately when necessary. The Turkish Navy fulfils this need with domestic UAVs in its inventory [33].

Today, there are 24 navies actively using UAVs [29]. As can be understood from this point, the Turkish Navy, which wants to have a say in every field according to its mission definition, has caught up with the era in using UAV technology as one of the world’s leading naval forces and has taken its place among the 5-6 most effective naval forces in the world with the different levels of UAVs used in its inventory [34]. Figure 3 shows the number of UAVs in the Naval Forces inventory.

According to Figure 3, it was observed that the Naval Forces generally use Class III UAVs. The Naval Forces have six ANKA-B UAVs with tail numbers TCB 851, TCB 852, TCB 853, TCB 854, TCB 855, TCB 856, developed by the Turkish Aerospace Industries for use in operational missions [35]. The Turkish Naval Forces have eight TB2 UAVs in their inventory, developed by Baykar Technology for tactical missions, with the following tail numbers: TCB 801 TB-2, TCB 802 TB-2, TCB 803 TB-2, TCB 806 TB-2, TCB 807 TB-2, TCB 808 TB-2, TCB 809 TB-2, TCB 810 TB-2 [36]. Two Anka-S and one Aksungur UAVs, developed by the Turkish Aerospace Industry, have entered the inventory of the Ministry of National Defense to serve in the Naval Forces [37].

Combined inventory

The inventory of UAVs actively used by the Turkish Armed Forces was presented in the previous section on the basis of Air, Land and Naval Forces. In addition, the number of UAVs actively used by the Special Forces Command, the Gendarmerie General Command, and the General Directorate of Security, the National Intelligence Organization and various Ministries was also determined. In light of all this information, a general inventory list for Turkey has been created.

Table 1 is based on NATO’s UAV classification approach. Table 1 includes UAVs that are in active use and excludes UAVs that are not in active use and those that have been removed from the inventory.

Table 1: Turkey UAV inventory 2010-2023 [11,13,29,38,39].

According to Table 1, UAVs are listed according to their manufacturers, origin, date of entry into inventory, class according to NATO, and number in inventory. Accordingly, the ‘Harpy UAV’ procured from Israel was the first of the Class-I UAVs to enter the inventory. It is known that before the Harpy UAV entered the inventory, the Armed Forces were introduced to the ‘UAV-X1 Şahit’ in 1992 and ‘Turna-Keklik UAVs’ in 1996 through the domestic supply process. However, these UAVs were not permanent in the inventory due to the lack of sufficient R&D activities and problems arising from their use. A turning point for the Turkish Armed Forces: MALE class UAVs developed by Baykar in 2015 and TAI in 2016. After 2014, UAV technologies have developed a lot, and when we look at the UAVs that have entered the inventory of the Armed Forces since then, we can see that the Armed Forces have caught up with the trend of UAV technologies and ranked among the top 10 armies in the world.

When the use of UAVs in the military field is analyzed, it is seen that they are generally classified according to their mission and performance parameters. This is because classifying UAVs serves as a guide to meet the needs of UAV designers, manufacturers and users. The most important performance parameters in the military use of UAVs are weight, endurance, altitude, payload capacity and propulsion system type [40].

In the literature research on UAV inventory analysis, it was observed that many armies around the world conduct UAV inventory analysis based on various classification factors. For example, the US Army classifies and analyzes the UAVs in its inventory based on maximum take-off weight, operational altitude and speed parameters [41]. Figure 4 shows a schematic of the analysis method.

According to Figure 4, the UAV inventory analysis method for this study is as follows [4,42-44]. UAVs:

1. According to the battlefield activities covering the air-land-seahybrid domains indicated by the arrow number 1,

2. According to the classification factors that affect performance, indicated by arrow 2,

3. They are analyzed according to their indigenousness, indicated by arrow 3.

Results and Discussion

Turkish armed forces inventory analysis

Analysis of UAVs according to battlefield effectiveness: The strategic and asymmetric impact of UAVs in military operations stems from their capabilities. Their ability to carry and launch various missiles/ammunitions as payload capacity makes them an important force multiplier in military operations [45].

UAVs are operating in battlefields at all levels. With ISTAR missions, they contribute to the decision-making process from the battlefield to the commander. While performing this mission, the armed UAV is also capable of performing fire and attack missions simultaneously with the payload it carries.

Table 2 shows that UAVs are active in many missions performed in the operational area of the Air Force. It has been determined that especially the MALE class UAVs in the inventory are used very actively at high altitudes, which is the Air Force’s area of responsibility. ‘Anka UAV’, ‘Akıncı UAV’, ‘Heron-1 UAV’ and ‘Aksungur UAV’ were found to be actively involved in radar system jamming/destruction, electronic intelligence, airspace base security, damage assessment, and destruction of unexploded bombs/ ammunitions, which are defined as other missions of the Air Force.

Table 2: The role of UAVs in Air-Land-Naval tasks [3].

UAVs In the execution of Intelligence, Reconnaissance, Target Acquisition and Surveillance (ISTAR) activities, which the Land Forces define as continuous activities, UAVs of all classes in their inventory are utilized. ‘Serçe UAV’, ‘Kargu UAV’ and ‘Songar UAV’, which are in the small class, have been used by infantry units with the advantage of being portable. Especially Kargu UAV and Songar UAV have an important place in gaining superiority in the battlefield with the weapon systems they carry. The Land Forces actively use the UAVs in its inventory for electronic warfare, target detection/ tracking/destruction, land mine detection/destruction and many other missions. The ‘TB-2 UAV’ and ‘Akıncı UAV’ in the inventory of the Turkish Land Forces are MALE class UAVs and have taken their place among the most effective UAVs in their class in the world. ‘TB- 2 UAV’ and ‘Akıncı UAV’ have successfully performed missions in Syria, Libya, Ukraine, Northern Iraq and many other conflict environments.

The ‘TB-2 UAV’, ‘Anka UAV’ and ‘Aksungur UAV’ in the inventory are used in missions such as shadowing enemy fleets, electronic warfare, protection of ports, etc. carried out by the Naval Forces. The most important feature of the TB-3 UAVs, which are produced for Naval Forces ships as an upgraded version of the TB-2 UAV, is that their wings are foldable. With the foldable wing feature, it is considered that more TB-3 UAVs can be deployed on ships.

Today, it would be more accurate to analyze UAVs in two different categories, unarmed and armed, according to their payloads, in order to reveal their impact on military operations. From the past to the present, tactical and strategic level UAVs have been seen to carry missiles/ammunition. However, with the impact of today’s developing UAV and weapon technologies, it is seen that small level UAVs are transformed into armed UAVs with the integration of weapon systems. (Example: ‘Kargu’, ‘Songar’, ‘Togan’ and ‘Alpagu’). In this way, the effectiveness of Class I UAVs, which can be used with a single/soldier-level operator, increases on the battlefield [46].

There are 5-6 countries in the world that have the capability to produce medium altitude long endurance (MALE) UAVs with domestic and national capabilities, such as the USA (R/MQ-4 Global Hawk, MQ-9 Reaper, MQ-1 Predator), China (Wing Loong, CH-4), Israel (Heron TP, Heron 1, Hermes 900) and Turkey (Anka, Bayraktar TB2, Karayel, Aksungur, Bayraktar Akıncı). MALE UAVs are used very effectively in military operations. The most important features of MALE UAVs, as stated in their definition, are their high payload weight, their ability to operate at high altitudes and their high endurance. Although MALE UAVs are ineffective against air defense systems such as the S-400 or Patriot, they have the capability and capability to change the course of operations among UAVs [30,47-49].

Kamikaze UAVs are unmanned systems designed to deliver munitions to a target beyond line of sight. They are also called ‘loitering munitions’ because of the path they follow in the air. The difference from normal munitions is that they can conduct surveillance activities in the air before the destruction of the target. This surveillance, which can be carried out before the destruction, can directly affect the decision-making process of the commander against a possible changing situation. In addition, one of the biggest advantages of kamikaze UAVs is that they are portable/mobile. Considering the organizational structure of the Land Forces, it is known that units ranging in size from teams to brigades actually operate in the field. Kamikaze UAVs can be easily transported and used on the battlefield on foot, in armored vehicles or by helicopter due to their mobile nature. For example, the Israeli HARPY UAV, which is in the TAF inventory, can be carried by vehicle and launched in day/night conditions. There are more than 30 kamikaze UAVs in active use by the world’s armies. Armies with kamikaze UAV systems hold a deterrent trump card against their opponents in the field of operation [27].

Another reason why UAVs are preferred in combat is the environment of the mission. These environments are given in Table 3 as dull, dirty and dangerous (3D).

Table 3: Distinctive tasks involved in UAV selection [50].

According to Table 3, dull mission environments are directly related to endurance. There is a significant difference between manned and unmanned systems in dull missions. Especially in ISTAR activities, it was found that in manned aircraft, crew fatigue is high and endurance is low, whereas in UAVs, there is no fatigue and endurance is high with surveillance means such as radar/camera etc. within the payload capacity. In dirty missions, UAVs were found to be superior to manned systems in CBRN environments. In the third mission environment, dangerous missions, there is a risk of loss of life of the crew, while UAVs have accident/crash situations. Given the recent popularity of kamikaze UAVs, they are capable of carrying out the most dangerous missions, such as self-destruction, successfully and without loss of life.

Analysis of UAVs according to performance-based classification factors

UAVs were analyzed according to performance-based classification factors based on weight, altitude and endurance parameters.

A general review of classification studies shows that Maximum Take-Off Weight (MTOW) is the most important classification factor. A review of the literature shows that MTOW is common among all classification factors and has an impact on other factors as well. Another important weight-related term is payload. A payload is a system that performs a fall from a certain altitude for the purpose of the mission. In addition to the systems that enable flight in UAVs, cameras, military equipment and other systems are classified as payloads [51].

UAVs are capable of carrying payloads as well as launching them. The weight criteria taken as basis when classifying according to weight vary in different classifications [52].

Figure 5 shows UAVs by MTOW, Figure 6 by payload capacity, and Figure 7 by PL/MTOW ratio. The weight factor can be seen as the most important parameter for UAVs and inventory selection. Even in classification approaches, it is seen as the most important factor affecting other classification factors. When considered in terms of performance in UAV technologies, it is seen that the weight parameter is important. There is a very serious relationship between the effectiveness of UAVs on the battlefield and the payload capacity. Therefore, Figure 7 shows the payload ratios of UAVs in Maximum Take-off Weight (MTOW).

In Figure 5, UAVs are ranked according to MTOW. Accordingly, the UAV with the highest MTOW among the UAV systems in the inventory is the ‘Akıncı UAV’. In second place is the Aksungur UAV, which has an MTOW 55% of the MTOW of the Akıncı UAV. The ‘Songar’, ‘Kargu’, ‘Serçe’ and ‘Black Hornet’ UAVs in the micro, mini and small class have an MTOW of less than 50 kg.

In Figure 6, 14 types of UAVs in the inventory are presented according to their payload capacities. Accordingly, the UAV with the highest payload weight of 1500 kg is the ‘Akıncı UAV’. Aksungur UAV has the second highest payload weight with 750 kg. The UAV with the smallest payload capacity is the Black Hornet in the micro category with a payload weight of 0.005 kg.

Figure 7 shows the payload weight (PL)-max take-off weight ratios of the UAVs in the inventory. The purpose of Figure 8 is to determine how efficiently the weight is distributed. In UAV technologies, all components that make up the system have a weight. Payload capacity is only one of these components.

A linear and similar trend was observed in Figure 5 and Figure 6, but the analysis in Figure 7 reveals the real effectiveness. It was found that the MQ-1 Predator, which ranked fifth in terms of MTOW and third in terms of payload capacity, ranked first in the PL/MTOW ratio. The MQ-1 Predator UAV utilized 44.1% of its maximum takeoff weight as payload capacity. According to the NATO classification approach, the MQ-1 Predator is in Class-III. It should be taken into account that the evaluations made about the MQ-1 Predator were made by comparing it with UAVs in its own class. In Class-I, the Harpy UAV, which carries 25.9% of its MTOW as payload capacity, was found to be the most effective UAV in its class according to the PL/MTOW ratio. The most important element of armed UAVs operating at the Tactical and Strategic levels that will affect the course of the operation on the battlefield is the weapon/missile/ammunition systems they carry. Therefore, it can be assumed that the UAV with the highest payload capacity in total weight is the most effective UAV. However, the payload capacity alone is insufficient to make this assessment. In addition, 3 of the 4 UAVs in the inventory (MQ-1 Predator, Black Hornet, Harpy) were found to be the most effective UAVs according to the PL/MTOW ratio.

In a study conducted by Maddalon et al., [52] with the Modern Technology Solutions Company (MTSI), Maddalon et al., [53] included ‘altitude’ in the category of new factors among the possible discriminating factors to be used in classifying UAVs, which is one of the most important operational classification parameters that significantly affect the results of military operations [53].

Especially in Intelligence, Surveillance, Target Acquisition, and Reconnaissance (ISTAR) activities, MALE UAVs in the Turkish Armed Forces (TAF) inventory are preferred more by the Air-Naval Forces, while UAVs operating at lower altitudes are preferred by the Land Forces. These preferences are shaped by the missions of the units in the battlefield (Table 2). In this context, it is important to analyze altitude separately as maximum and operational altitude. At maximum and operational altitudes, UAVs that have entered the inventory through the domestic supply process stand out in the altitude parameter (Figure 8).

According to Figure 8, Akıncı UAV is the aircraft that has reached the highest altitude among the UAVs in the inventory. On July 8, 2021, Akıncı UAV broke the altitude record by reaching an altitude of 11595 m during a flight. Later, Akıncı UAV renewed its record by reaching an altitude of 12235 m during a flight in Çorlu. This altitude reached has gone down in history as the highest altitude reached by an aircraft produced with domestic and national capabilities [54]. Among the tactical and MALE UAVs in Class-III in the inventory, Akıncı UAV is followed by Aksungur and Anka UAVs with 9144 m, TB-2 UAV with 8238.74 m, and MQ-1 Predator UAV with 7620 m. The maximum altitude parameter gains importance in situations where noise-free flight is important on the battlefield. UAVs flying at maximum altitude can usually monitor a wide area, detect enemy movements and provide an overall situation assessment. This can be important for obtaining strategic information and enemy detection. However, it may be difficult for UAVs flying at high altitudes to observe and directly interact with enemy elements in greater detail. For direct attacks against enemy targets, it may be necessary to descend to lower altitudes. These statements refer to the operational altitude. Operational altitude is an important technical term for UAVs and refers to the operationally optimal altitude at which a UAV can operate on a regular basis. It refers to the range of altitudes at which the UAV can operate most efficiently and effectively in accomplishing its mission. The operational altitude can vary depending on various factors and is usually determined by the design and performance characteristics of a particular UAV model. The operational altitude also affects the probability of the UAV encountering enemy air defense systems and threats. UAVs flying at low altitudes may be more vulnerable, while those flying at high altitudes can perform their missions from a safer distance.

According to Figure 9, the Akıncı UAV, which operates at 9141 m, ranks first again. It is followed by Aksungur and Anka UAVs with 7010.4 m, TB-2 UAV with 5486.4 m, and MQ-1 Predator UAV with 4572 m. Figure 8 and Figure 9 show that the maximum and operational altitudes of the Serçe UAV and Heron UAVs are the same. In the light of this information, it is concluded that Class-III UAVs are more effective than Class-II UAVs and Class-II UAVs are more effective than Class-I UAVs according to the altitude factor. It has been concluded that it is more important to consider the operational altitude in the inventory selection of UAVs than the maximum and operational altitudes.

One of the most important parameters that determines the effectiveness of weapons, equipment and other systems used on the battlefield and distinguishes them from other manned systems is endurance. When we think of endurance for UAVs, two terms come to mind. The first of these is the time in the air. The second is operational range. Operational range refers to the distance between the control station and the aircraft, which is a unique factor used in classification due to variations such as eye communication, radio communication or autonomy. Dull missions, as defined in Table 3, are among the distinguishing missions that play a role in the preference for UAVs with high endurance. In manned aircraft, the lack of attention and concentration of the crew in situations requiring long periods of time in the air has many disadvantages. UAVs are superior to manned aircraft in terms of the payload capacity they carry, the available reconnaissance/surveillance equipment, and the long endurance and long distances they can cover. Figure 10 shows the endurance durations of the UAVs in the inventory.

In Figure 10, the endurance factor is analyzed according to the maximum time in the air. Accordingly, Aksungur UAV system, which is among the MALE UAVs, has the longest endurance with 50 hours (3000 minutes) of endurance. Aksungur UAV can have a range of 6500 km with this endurance. According to the maximum endurance, the top four UAVs in Class II-III are ‘Aksungur UAV’, ‘Anka UAV’, ‘TB-2 UAV’ and ‘Akıncı UAV’, which were taken into inventory with domestic supply. The UAVs in Class-I were observed to have durability ranging between 25-90 minutes. In order for UAVs with an endurance of less than 35 minutes (Examples: Serçe, Kargu, Songar, Black Hornet), which are used by Land Forces foot troops in the field of operation and assigned for the reconnaissance of a detected target, to successfully complete the mission, the time to the target-target detection/reconnaissance time-target destruction (if armed) time-return time should be taken into account. Adding a safety margin of 15%-25% to all these mission profile phases is also a factor that should be taken into consideration. In the light of this information, it is concluded that Class-I UAVs are more preferred for very short reconnaissance and surveillance missions of small units due to their low endurance. Larger units use and prefer Class-II/III UAVs for missions requiring long endurance (border security, port security, etc.). In terms of Turkish Armed Forces inventory studies, it was concluded that it would be beneficial to make decisions by considering the endurance values of UAVs together with the purpose of use and the level of the unit using them (Figure 11).

Analysis of UAVs according to origin

The origin of UAVs was analyzed in two stages:

1. Origin rate of UAV Types,

2. Origin rate of the total quantity of UAVs.

According to the inventory in Table 1, 14 different types of UAVs are in use. Figure 12 shows the country of origin of 14 different UAV types.

According to Figure 11 above, in terms of diversity, there are a total of 14 types of UAVs in the inventory. 12 UAVs, constituting 72% of the UAVs, are of Turkish origin. 2 UAVs, constituting 14% of the UAVs, are of US origin, while the other 2 UAVs, constituting 14% of the UAVs, are of Israeli origin. Based on diversity, 74% of the UAVs in the Turkish Armed Forces inventory are domestic.

According to the inventory in Table 1, there are a total of 1575 UAV systems of 14 types. For example, the ANKA UAV is shown as 60+ in Table 1 and is included in the total quantity as 60. Figure 12 shows the percentages of 1575 UAVs according to their origin.

According to Figure 12, there are a quantity of 1575 UAV systems in the inventory. Of the 1575 UAVs, 92% (1459) are of Turkish origin, 6% (110) are of Israeli origin and 2% (6) are of US origin. In terms of quantity, it was observed that 92% of the UAVs were indigenous, which is a very high rate. One of the most important parameters in inventory selection is the localization rate. Domestic UAVs provide advantages in UAV development-maintenance-repair-spare parts, etc.

Conclusion

In conclusion, this study’s analysis of the Turkish Armed Forces’ UAV inventory, conducted with innovative methodologies, highlights the growing significance of Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs) in modern defense technologies. As UAVs continue to evolve and exhibit diverse capabilities, their integration into the inventories of developed armies, particularly within NATO member countries, has become increasingly prevalent. By focusing on parameters such as battlefield effectiveness, performance-based classification factors, and origin analysis, this research provides valuable insights and recommendations for optimizing UAV inventories.

This study serves as a model for similar analyses in armed forces worldwide, offering a strategic blueprint for harnessing UAVs to enhance defense capabilities. As we navigate an era of technological advancement, this research underscores the importance of staying at the forefront of defense technology adoption, ultimately contributing to the readiness and security of armies utilizing UAV systems.

Recommendations

1. Since UAV technologies are seen as a critical factor in achieving military objectives in NATO doctrine, evaluating the effectiveness of UAVs on the battlefield is important for inventory selection. The correct selection of UAVs in the inventory is seen as a decisive factor in the success of operations in the field and the achievement of military objectives. It is concluded that the evaluation of the effectiveness of UAVs in the battlefield is very important due to the following reasons: (i) Mission Capabilities and Flexibility, (ii) Battlefield Characteristics, (iii) Target Detection and Intelligence Collection, (iv)Security and Mission Success, (v) Logistics and Ease of Maintenance.

2. In inventory selection, both MTOW and payload weight are important selection parameters to determine the performance potential and capabilities of the UAV. In inventory selection, MTOW is found to be effective in selecting the appropriate UAV that can fulfil the specified missions and meet the operational requirements. It was observed that UAV systems with high MTOW were selected for strategic reconnaissance and longrange operations, while UAVs with low MTOW were selected for short-range surveillance or local intelligence collection activities. It was concluded that the payload weight directly affects the missions performed by the UAV on the battlefield. It is concluded that the payload weight is critical for the selection of an effective UAV that can carry equipment suitable for the specified missions and meet the mission requirements. If the payload weight of the UAV is insufficient, it is seen that it negatively affects the mission. Therefore, it is concluded that both MTOW and payload weight should be taken into account in inventory selection to determine the performance potential and capabilities of the UAV.

3. Maximum altitude was found to be particularly important for ISTAR missions. However, it was concluded that it is not always possible to reach maximum altitude in practice. Operational altitude, on the other hand, has been found to be the most suitable and safe altitude range to fulfil the missions and other tasks in the battlefield. Therefore, in the inventory selection of UAVs, it is of great importance that they have an operational altitude that meets the requirements of the planned missions and operations. It is concluded that operational altitude rather than maximum altitude should be considered in inventory selection.

4. It is concluded that endurance is important in inventory selection. The importance of endurance in inventory selection was found to be very important for the following reasons: (i) Mission Duration and Effectiveness, (ii) Width of the Operational Area, (iii) Flexibility and Rapid Response, (iv) operational Costs. UAVs with longer endurance enable the same mission to be carried out using fewer UAVs, thereby reducing operational costs and enabling more efficient use of resources. Therefore, the importance of endurance in inventory selection should be considered when selecting a UAV for use scenarios, mission requirements and operational objectives. It should be kept in mind that different UAV types may have different endurance durations, and the inclusion of this diversity in the inventory can increase operational flexibility and effectiveness.

5. Based on the origin analysis, it has been observed that the number of foreign origin UAV types in the inventory of the reference army is small. The dependency and difficulties experienced as a result of the procurement of UAVs from abroad are considered to be the subject of a different study. For the reference army, it has been observed that the equivalents of the UAVs procured from abroad have reached the point where they can be procured domestically. It has been concluded that the difficulties of foreign dependency for countries and armies are on the way to be overcome for the reference army in this study. It was concluded that there are a small number of armed UAVs (Class-I) in the inventory of the reference army. It is recommended to increase the number of armed UAVs (Class-I) in the inventory in order to increase the effectiveness of missions performed by small units.

6. It was concluded that there are a small number of armed UAVs (Class-I) in the inventory of the reference army. It is recommended to increase the number of armed UAVs (Class-I) in the inventory in order to increase the effectiveness of missions performed by small units.

7. It is considered that kamikaze UAVs will be more preferred especially in operations to be conducted by ground troops. Therefore, it is recommended that Kamikaze UAVs should be included in the inventory of NATO member armies and their number should be increased in line with the needs.

8. Due to the advantages of the UAVs in the Air Force inventory, it is recommended that necessary studies be carried out to conduct joint operations with manned fighter aircraft in the airspace in a hybrid warfare environment.

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